PtRST  LESSON 


iVISON'BLTAKEMAN'E'COttPANY 


eNEW  YORK'S'CHiCAaO  « 


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REESE   LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

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MANUAL    TRAINING 


FIRST    LESSONS 


IN 


WOOD -WORKING 


BY 


ALFRED   G.  COMPTON 


PROFESSOR    OF    APPLIED     MATHEMATICS    IN    THE    COLLEGE    OF    THE    CITY 

OF    NEW    YORK,     INSTRUCTOR    IN    CHARGE    OF    THE    WORKSHOPS 

OF    THE    COLLEGE,     AND    AUTHOR    OF    A     MANUAL    OF 

LOGARITHMIC    COMPUTATION 


OF  THF. 

1?  N  T  V"P?  R  S I T  Y 
OF 


IVISON,    BLAKEMAN,    AND    COMPANY 

Ipublisbers 
NE\V    YQKK  AND  CHICAGO 


1 


COPYRIGHT, 

1888, 
BY  IVISON,  BLAKEMAN  &  CO. 


PRESS    OF    HENRY    H.    CLARK    &    CO.,    BOSTON. 


CORRECTIONS. 


By  mistake  of  the  draughtsman  several  errors  appear  in 
the  figures  which  should  be  corrected,  as  below  : 

Page  16,  Fig.  7. — The  end  of  the 
block  should  show  concentric  rings, 
not  a  spiral.  It  is  shown  correctly  in 
this  figure. 


75>  Fig.  30. — The  set 
screw  should  be  in  the  head 
of  the  gauge,  not  in  the  rod. 
It  is  shown  correctly  in  the 
annexed  cuts. 


Page  113,  Fig.  49. — The  last  part  of  this  figure  should 
be  changed  to  appear  as  below  : 


1 


:U-^ 


E 


Of  THE 

•0NIVERSITT 


PREFACE. 


THE  series  of  lessons  in  wood-working  here  pre- 
sented is  intended,  principally,  for  use  in  schools  in 
which  hand-work  is  pursued  as  a  part  of  general 
training.  The  order  of  sequence  is  designed  to  lead 
the  pupil  from  one  tool  to  another  of  larger  capabil- 
ities, and  from  one  operation  to  another  requiring  a 
higher  degree  of  skill. 

In  writing  the  descriptions  of  operations  the  aim 
has  been  to  make  them  so  full  as  to  enable  an  intel- 
ligent pupil  to  perform  the  operations  tolerably  well, 
even  without  the  help  of  an  instructor,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  direct  the  attention  of  the  instructor 
to  the  principal  points  that  he  ought  to  insist  on, 
and  the  principal  errors  that  are  found  to  occur. 
The  work  being  designed  for  young  pupils,  say 
between  the  ages  of  eleven  and  fourteen,  it  is  not 
intended  to  go  over  much  ground,  nor  to  impart 
great  skill,  but  only  to  open  the  way,  reserving  for 
another  volume  a  more  extended  course.  For  the 
same  reason,  a  thorough  analysis  of  the  mode  of 
action  of  each  tool  is  not  attempted :  this  belongs 
rather  to  the  teaching  in  a  technical  school,  and 

iii 


iv  Preface. 


should  have  its  place  in  a  more  advanced  work  for 
higher  classes.  Nevertheless,  it  is  intended,  not 
merely  to  teach  the  pupil  how  to  handle  the  tool, 
but  also  to  form  in  him  the  habit  of  considering 
how  the  tool  operates,  and  what  modifications  it 
requires  to  adapt  it  to  different  uses,  affording  thus 
training  not  only  for  the  hand  and  the  eye,  but  for 
the  attention  and  judgment  as  well, —  an  end  to 
which  hand-work,  properly  conducted,  is  at  least  as 
well  adapted  as  many  of  the  other  studies  that  have 
heretofore  monopolized  the  attention  of  our  schools. 

With  the  exercises  in  the  use  of  tools  have  been 
interwoven  observations  on  the  properties  of  the  ma- 
terials used,  and  elementary  principles  of  mechanical 
drawing,  with  the  idea  that  the  three  studies,  thus 
blended  together,  would  lend  help  and  stimulus  to 
each  other,  and  thus  be  pursued  with  more  zest  than 
if  taught  separately. 

The  division  into  lessons  is  necessarily,  to  some  ex- 
tent, arbitrary.  The  lessons  may  be  found  too  long 
or  too  short,  according  to  the  time  which  the  school 
may  be  able  to  allow.  An  intelligent  instructor  will 
easily  combine  them  or  subdivide  them  as  occasion 
may  require. 

I  am  indebted  to  Messrs.  Fairbanks  &  Co.  for  the 
design  for  a  small  testing-machine,  Fig.  8,  and  to 
my  colleague,  Professor  William  Stratford,  for  the 
micro-photograph  of  a  section  of  the  wood  of  Pinus 
Sylvestris,  Fig.  6, 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

PREFACE .     iii 

MATERIALS  AND  TOOLS  NEEDED        .  vii 

LESSON 

I.     Cutting  tools  —  knife    and    hatchet ;    cross- 
cutting    .1 

II.     Knife    and    hatchet    continued;    splitting 

whittling,  and  hewing  .  8 

III.  Strength  of  wood    ...  .14 

IV.  The  Cross-cut-saw       ...  .21 
V.     Shrinking,  cracking  and  warping  of  timber       28 

VI.  Working-sketches          .                                   .  32 

VII.  Working-drawings     .  38 

VIII.  Making  a  nailed  box ;  laying  out  the  work  44 

IX.  Hammer    and    nails;    putting   a  box   to- 
gether    ....  .49 

X.  The  same,  continued;  taking  apart  54 

XI.  The  Jack-plane 58 

XII.  The  Smoothing-plane  68 

XIII.  Back-saw  and  bench-dog       .                          .  78 

XIV.  The  Chisel ;  paring   and   chamfering ;  char- 

acters of  different  woods       .         .         .85 


VI 


Contents. 


XV.     The   Chisel,    continued;   through    mortise; 

brace  and  bit 99 

XVI.     The  Chisel,  continued;  end  dove-tail       .  Ill 
XVII.     Dove-tailed    box ;    laying    out    the    work ; 

cutting  the  dove-tails            .         .         .119 
XVIII.     Gluing;  hand-screws;  putting  the    box  to- 
gether          128 

XIX.     Finishing  a  dove-tailed  box;   planing  end- 
wood     .......  136 

XX.     Fitting  hinges 140 

XXI.     Making  a  paneled  door ;  isometric  drawing  146 

XXII.     Paneled  door,  continued ;  mortise       .         .  160 

XXIII.  Fitting  a  panel ;  the  plow        ...  167 

XXIV.  Chamfering  a  frame ;  finishing  with    sand- 

paper and  shellac        ....  172 

ALPHABETICAL  INDEX  183 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


Tools  and   Materials   required   for  the   Course   of 
Lessons  in  Wood-Working. 

I.  —  TOOLS,  ONE  FOR  EACH  PUPIL. 

Pocket-knife,  two  blades. 

Lead  pencil,  No.  2. 

Marking-gauge. 

Cross-cut-saw,  22  inches  long,    8    teeth  to  the  inch. 

Rip-saw,  22  "  4i          "  " 

Tenon-saw,       14  "  12  "  " 

Dove-tail-saw,    8  "  15  "  " 

Try  square,  steel  blade,  6  inches  long. 

Hammer,  weight  1  lb.,  handled. 

Mallet,  "       1  lb.,  handled. 

Two-foot  folding  rule,  metric   and   English  on  opposite 

sides. 

Jack-plane,  double-ironed. 
Smoothing-plane,  double-ironed. 
Firmer  chisel,  one  inch,  pear-tree  handle. 

half-inch 
"       quarter-inch    " 

II.  —  TOOLS,  ONE  FOR  EACH  BENCH  (TWO  PUPILS). 

Double  bench,  with  closets. 

Bevel,  blade  12  inches  long. 

vii 


viii  Manual    Training. 

Oil-stone,  in  box. 

Oil-can,  filled. 

Bench-dog,  6  inches  by  12. 

Brace. 

Center-bit,  £  inch. 

Screw-driver,  £  inch. 

Brad-awls,  -J"  and  ^;/. 

III.  —  TOOLS    FOR    EACH    CLASS. 

One  chopping-block,  12  to  15  inches  in  diameter,  20  inches 

high. 

One  dozen  straight-edges,  £"  x  2"  —  24",  pine. 
Three  glue-pots,  1  quart. 
Three  glue-brushes. 
Two  dozen  hand-screws,  14  inches. 

u  n  a  a  n        a 

Twenty  pounds  glue. 
Can  of  sperm-oil,  1  gallon. 

"      white  shellac  varnish,  1  gallon. 
One  fore-plane. 
Three  plows,  with  bits. 
One  draw-knife. 

IV.  —  MATERIALS   FOR   EACH   PUPIL. 

LESSON  I.  —  Stick    of   white    pine,    -J-"  square,   10"  long. 
Stick  of  pine  or  hemlock  fire-wood,  2  feet  long,  2  inches 

thick. 
LESSON  II. — Two  pieces  of  pine,  each  i"  X  1" — 6",  one 

straight-grained  the  other  crooked. 
Piece  of  pine  or  hemlock  fire-wood,  six  or  eight  inches 


Tools  and  Materials. 


long,  about  three  inches  square,  with   square   ends, 
without  knots. 

LESSON  III.  — Two  strips  of  pine,  |"  X  i"  —  3",  one  cut 
length-ways  of  the  grain,  the  other  cross-ways. 

LESSON  IV.  — Piece   of  mill-dressed    pine,  1"  X  4"—  12", 

to  try  tools  on. 

Piece  of  straight-grained  clear  pine,  f  "  X  6"  —  4'  6',  mill- 
dressed,  cut  from  the  end  of  the  board,  showing  the 
rough  end  and  the  cracks  or  checks. 

LESSON  V.  —  Half  dozen  %  inch  dowels,  about  4  inches 
long,  with  a  piece  of  maple,  cherry,  or  other  hard- 
wood, 1"  X  3"  —  8",  bored  with  holes  of  the  same 
size  as  the  dowel. 

LESSON  IX.  —  Two  dozen  four-penny  nails. 

LESSON  XI.  —  Piece  of  clear  pine,  about  J"x  6"— 12", 
for  practice  with  plane. 

LESSON  XIII.  — Clear  pine  board,  f "  X  8"  -  26",  for  top 
and  bottom  of  box. 

LESSON  XIV.  —  Pine  plank,  1-J"  thick,  not  very  straight- 
grained,  to  be  cut  to  lengths  of  9",  and  split  to  width 
of  1-J-",  and  similar  plank  of  white-wood,  furnishing 
one  stick  of  one  kind,  1£"  X  1  £"— 9"  to  each  pupil. 

LESSON  XV.  —  Two  pieces  of  clear  pine,  4cm<  x5cm>— 15cm> 

LESSON  XVI.  —  Two  pieces   of  clear  white- wood,   1J"   X 

f\n       off 

Zt    —  o   . 

LESSON  XX.  —  1  pair  brass  hinges,  -J-"  X  1£",  with  screws. 

1  brass  hook,  1",  with  staple  or  screw-eye. 
LESSON  XXI. — Clear   pine   or   white-wood    plank,  1J"  x 

12"-  3'  6"  for  frame. 

Ditto    £"  X  114"  -  16i"  for    panel. 


Manual    Training. 


LESSON  XXIV.  —  Half  sheet  sand-paper,  number  0. 

V.  —  MATERIALS    OF    ILLUSTRATION   FOR   EACH    CLASS. 

Specimen  of  fiber  of  hemp  and  flax  for  Lesson  III.,  p.  14. 
Piece  of  round  pine  or  spruce,  about  six  inches  long,  with 

bark  on,  for  Lesson  III.,  p.  16. 
Small  testing-machine  (desirable  but  not  indispensable) 

for  Lesson  III.,  p.  18. 
Piece  or  pieces  of  round  timber,  about  10  or  12  inches  in 

diameter  and  2  feet  long,  stripped  of  bark,  showing 

character    and   direction   of   cracks   (or   checks)   for 

Lesson  V.,  p.  31. 
Similar  pieces  cut  into  boards,  which  are  numbered  and 

tied  together,  slabs  included,  in  their  proper  places, 

for  same. 
Block  of  walnut  5"  X  3f  —  9",  with  hole  in  one  end  as 

in  description,  p.  34,  35. 
Nailed  box,  9J"  X  8"- 12",  as  figured  on  p.  38. 


LESSON     I. 

Cutting   Tools.  —  Knife   and    Hatchet. 

T^VERY  cutting  tool  is  a  wedge,  which  is 
J^/  pressed  or  driven  between  the  particles  of 
the  wood,  pushing  them  apart  as  it  advances. 
You  have  a  stick  of  white  pine  half  an  inch 
square  and  about  ten  inches  long.  Lay  it 
down  on  your  bench,  holding  it  in  your  left 
hand,  and  try  to  cut  it  across  with  your  knife, 
about  an  inch  from  the  end.  Pressing  down 
on  the  knife  pretty  hard,  you  force  the  blade 
in  a  short  distance,  pushing  the  wood  right 
and  left,  and  making  a  small  notch.  You  soon 
find,  however,  that  you  cannot  force  the  knife 
forward  any  farther ;  the  sides  EXERCISE  i. 
of  the  notch  resist  the  advance  cross-cutting 
of  the  knife,  and  stop  it  when  with  knife, 
you  have  pushed  it  in  perhaps  an  eighth  of 
an  inch.  If  you  could  remove  the  wood  that 
presses  against  the  sides  of  the  knife-blade  you 
might  be  able  to  drive  it  farther  forward  and 


Manual    Training. 


cut  deeper.  You  can  do  this  if  you  proceed 
a  little  differently.  Begin  again  on  the  op- 
posite face  of  the  stick,  at  the  same  distance 
from  the  end ;  but  this  time,  instead  of  press- 
ing squarely  against  the  side  of  the  piece,  press 
obliquely  in  the  direction  of  the  line  a  6,  Fig.  1.  * 

The  knife  moves 

<*\  "«         f  -, 

'  forward    more 

easily,  because  it 
lifts  up  the  fibers 
on  one  side  and 


d, 

pushes     them 

away,  bending  them  as  in  the  figure.  Even 
now,  however,  the  wood  ceases  to  yield  after 
a  while,  and  the  blade  advances  no  farther. 
If  you  now  place  your  knife  just  to  the  right 
of  the  former  cut  and  cut  down  towards  the 

left,  in  the  direction       ^_ 

of  the  line  c  d,  you 
will  cut  off  the  ends 
of  the  fibers  that  are 
bent  up,  and  leave  a  notch,  as  in  Fig.  2. 

*  The  crooked  lines  at  the  end  of  the  drawing  in  Figs.  1,  2,  3 
mean  that  the  portion  of  the  object  to  the  left  of  such  lines 
is  left  out  as  unnecessary.  Similar  lines  are  shown  in  Figs. 
32,  45,  and  others. 


Wood  -  Working. 


Next  place  the  knife  a  little  to  the  left  of 
the  notch,  and  cut  in  the  same  direction 
as  at  first.  You  will  turn  up  another  chip, 
as  in  Fig.  3.  You  easily  cut  off  this  chip 

by    cutting    in    the        x 

second    direction    (c      ^^ 
d,  Fig.  1),  and    can  ^ 

even,    at    the    same 

time,  by  making  this  cut  a  little  to  the 
right,  widen  and  deepen  the  notch.  Repeat- 
ing these  operations,  you  may  cut  half-way 
through  the  stick. 

In  this  exercise,  as  in  every  other  opera- 
tion with  cutting  tools,  make  it  an  invariable 
rule,  never  to  cut  towards  your  own  hand. 
Then  if  your  tool  slips  it  may  perhaps  cut 
your  bench,  but  it  cannot  cut  you.  Further- 
more, it  may  be  observed  here,  that  in  mov- 
ing about  the  shop,  you  should  never  carry 
any  cutting  tool  in  your  hand,  unless  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  do  so.  In  such  cases 
it  must  be  carried  with  extreme  care,  so  as 
not  to  wound  yourself  or  any  one  else.  Strict 
attention  to  these  rules  is  absolutely  necessary. 

You   have  now  cut  half-way   through  your 


Manual    Training. 


stick.  Beginning  on  the  other  side,  you  may 
now  make  another  cut  to  meet  the  first  one, 
thus  cutting  the  stick  quite  in  two.  Having 
done  this  once,  you  may  cut  off  another 
piece  an  inch  long,  this  time  paying  particu- 
lar attention  to  the  following  principle.  The 
knife,  or  any  other  tool  for  cutting  wood, 
works  best  when,  instead  of  pushing  directly 
down  on  the  tool,  you  at  the  same  time 
draw  it  along.  This  is  more  important  the 
softer  the  material  is,  and  is  well  illustrated  in 
cutting  or  carving  meat,  where,  if  we  press  on 
the  knife  without  drawing  it  along  we  only 
bend  the  fibers  instead  of  cutting  them.  You 
will  therefore  this  time,  as  always  hereafter, 
in  using  a  knife  or  other  cutting  tool,  par- 
ticularly on  soft  wood,  try  to  give  it  a  slid- 
ing motion  along  with  the  pressure.  Bearing 
this  in  mind,  try  now  to  cut  off  the  second 
inch  of  your  stick  clean  and  smooth. 

After  this,  cut  off  a  third  piece,  working 
this  time  with  the  stick  firmly  held  in  the 
left  hand  instead  of  resting  on  the  bench. 
Holding  the  stick  thus  you  will  have  a  better 
command  of  the  knife,  and  will  more  readily 


Wood  -  Working. 


give  it  the  proper  sliding  motion ;  but,  unless 
you  are  very  careful  you  will  run  some  risk 
of  cutting  yourself  in  making  the  second  or 
backward  cut.  If  you  do  not  feel  safe  in 
making  this  cut,  you  may  again  rest  the  stick 
on  the  bench.  To  vary  the  exercise,  you  may 
cut  the  stick  from  all  the  four  sides  succes- 
sively, leaving  it  nicely  pointed  in  the  form 
of  a  square  pyramid. 

After  every  exercise  try  to  judge  the  quality 
of  your  work.  In  this  last,  for  instance,  see 
whether  all  four  of  the  faces  of  the  pyramid 
are  perfectly  smooth  and  alike,  whether  they 
meet  exactly  in  a  point,  and  whether  the 
edges  are  straight  and  sharp. 

If  the  piece  of  wood  to  be  cut  were  three 
or  four  inches  thick  instead  of  half  an  inch, 
it  might  be  cut  off  in  exactly  the  same  way 
with  the  hatchet  or  ax,  which  is  only  a  short, 
heavy  knife  driven  forward  by  blows  instead 
of  pressure,  and  without  the  sliding  motion 
just  described.  With  the  hatchet  or  ax,  just 
as  with  the  knife,  a  blow  square  across  the 
fibers  will  make  the  tool  penetrate  but  a  short 
distance,  and  to  make  it  cut  to  any  consider- 

CF  THP 
XJKIVERSI 


Manual    Training. 


able  depth  the  blows  must  be  directed  right 
and  left  alternately,  gradually  widening  the 
cut,  exactly  as  in  the  exercise  with  the  knife, 
leaving  the  piece  beveled  or  obliquely  cut 
on  the  end.  This  is  exactly  the  kind  of  cut 
that  the  woodman  makes  with  his  heavy  ax 
in  felling  a  tree,  and  afterwards  in  cutting  it 
up  into  logs.  You  may  try  it  with  a  light 
hatchet  on  a  stick  of  pine  or  hemlock  fire- 
wood, two  or  three  feet  long  and  about  two 
inches  thick.  Lay  it  on  the  chopping-block, 
holding  the  end  in  the  left  hand.  First  strike 
EXERCISE  2.  a  square  blow  with  the  hatchet,  ob- 

cross-cutting   serving    how   little   it   penetrates. 

with  hatchet.  Next  strike  obliquely,  right  and 
left  alternately.  Be  very  careful  not  to  strike 
very  hard,  nor  to  let  the  hatchet  glance,  lest  you 
cut  yourself.  When  you  have  cut  about  half 
through  you  may  turn  the  stick  over  and  cut 
from  the  other  side ;  but  if  you  do  this  you 
must  work  rather  carefully  when  you  have 
nearly  cut  through,  for  if  the  last  stroke,  which 
cuts  through,  should  be  delivered  too  squarely, 
or  with  too  much  force,  the  end  piece  would 
fly  up,  and  might  strike  you  in  the  face. 


Wood  -  Working. 


You  have  now  learned  that  such  cutting  tools 
as  the  knife  and  the  hatchet  are  not  adapted  for 
cutting  square  across  the  grain  of  wood,  though 
they  cut  very  well  obliquely.  We  shall  learn 
by  and  by  what  instrument  to  use  when  it  is 
necessary  to  cut  square  across  the  grain. 


LESSON    II. 
Knife    and    Hatchet   Continued. 

r  I  AHE    knife,  the    hatchet,  and   similar  tools 
.1.     are  used  for  other  purposes  besides  cross- 
cutting     or     chopping:     they     are     used     for 
splitting    and    for    hewing    or    paring. 

You   have   two   pieces  of  pine  \  of  an   inch 

thick,  2  inches  wide,  and  about  6  inches  long, 

marked  A  and  B.     Try  to  split  from  one  edge 

a  piece  half  an   inch   wide.     The   pieces   have 

been  selected   by  inspecting   the   grain   of  the 

wood,  so  that  in  one  case   this   task   shall   be 

easy,  and  in  the  other  case   impossible.      Take 

EXERCISE  3.     the  piece  marked  A.     Set   it  up 

Splitting  with   endwise   on   your   bench.      Place 

knife.         your  knife  on  the  end,  about  an 

inch    from    the    edge,   and    press    down    hard 

with    the    right    hand.       You    find    that    the 

knife  runs  out,  cutting  off  too  narrow  a  piece, 

or   runs   in,  cutting  too   wide   a   piece.      Take 

the  piece  marked  B  and  try  the  same  experi- 

8 


Wood  -  Working.  9 


ment,  and  you  find  no  difficulty  in  splitting 
off.  the  piece  required.  Now,  looking  at  the 
sides  of  the  pieces,  you  find  that  your  knife 
in  both  cases  followed  the  grain  of  the  wood, 
indicated  by  lines  that  you  see  on  the  face  if 
you  examine  with  care.  Your  experience, 
then,  shows  you  that  when  you  wish  to  split 
wood  in  a  given  direction  you  must  pay 
attention  to  the  grain,  and  when  the  grain  is 
not  favorable,  if  you  wish  to  cut  along  a 
given  line  you  will  have  to  use  some  other 
method  than  that  of  splitting.  We  shall 
learn,  in  a  few  lessons,  what  this  method  is, 
and  what  tool  must  be  used. 

As   thin   and   soft   wood   is    split    with    the 
knife,  so   heavier   and    harder    wood    may   be 
split   with   the   hatchet   or    the    ax.      Try   the 
hatchet  on  a  piece   of  fire-wood,  about   six   or 
eight  inches  long,  taking  first  a  piece  of  soft 
wood,    such    as     pine     or     hemlock,     without 
knots,  and   with   square   ends,  so    EXERCISE  4. 
that  it  will  stand  upright  on  the   splitting  with 
block    without    being    held.      At       hatchet, 
first,  to   get  control   of  the   movement  of  the 
hatchet,  you    may    strike   a   light   blow,  caus- 


10  Manual    Training. 

ing  the  hatchet  to  stick  in  the  wood,  and 
then,  lifting  hatchet  and  stick  together,  strike 
a  harder  blow,  driving  the  hatchet  through. 
Afterwards,  but  not  till  you  are  quite  sure 
of  your  ability  to  strike  just  where  you 
wish  to,  even  when  hitting  hard,  you  may 
hold  the  piece  steady  with  the  left  hand, 
snatching  the  hand  away  just  as  you  strike 
with  the  right.  This  must  be  practiced  with 
extreme  care,  and  only  by  one  pupil  at  a 
time,  and  under  the  eye  of  the  instructor. 
Last  of  all,  when  you  are  quite  sure  of  your 
stroke,  you  may  venture  to  strike  with  the 
right  hand  while  holding  the  piece  with  the 
left,  but  use  a  pretty  large  piece,  and  do  not 
try  to  split  off  much  at  once. 

From  short  pieces  and  soft  wood,  such  as 
you  have  just  used,  it  requires  only  practice 
to  enable  you  to  work  up  gradually  to  longer 
pieces  and  harder  wood,  requiring  stronger 
blows  and  heavier  tools. 

Besides  cutting  across  the  grain  and  split- 
ting along  the  grain,  we  may  cut  along  the 
grain  instead  of  splitting,  for  the  purpose  of 
trimming  the  piece  down  to  a  given  mark. 


Wood  -  Working. 


11 


This  operation  performed  on  a  small  piece 
with  a  knife  or  a  chisel,  is  called  paring ;  on 
a  larger  scale,  with  the  hatchet  or  ax  it  is 
hewing.  Since,  in  this  case,  the  cutting  is 
mostly  in  the  direction  of  the  grain,  or  nearly 
so,  we  have  to  be  careful  not  to  let  the  tool 
split  the  wood,  so  as  to  run  inside  of  the  pro- 
posed mark. 

Take  the  piece   A   again,  which   has  now   a 
crooked  edge,  and  draw  a  straight  line  on    the 
side  of  it  with   your   lead-pencil,    EXERCISE  5. 
about  half  an  inch  from  the  for-  paring  or  whit- 
mer  edge.      To  prevent  the  wood  tiing  with  knife, 
from  splitting  within  this  mark,  the  first   pre- 
caution to  be  taken  is  to  cut  in  such  a  direc- 
tion that  the   knife,  following   the   grain,  will 
run  outward  rather  than  inward.     Thus,  if  the 


grain  runs  as  in  Fig.  4,  in  which  A  B  is  the 
line  to  which  the  piece  is  to  be  pared   down, 


12 


Manual    Training. 


the  part  from  A  to  0,  must  be  pared  from  left 
to  right,  and  the  part  from  0  to  B  from  right 
to  left.  A  second  precaution  that  may  be  ob- 
served, particularly  when  much  wood  is  to  be 
removed,  and  when  the  grain  is  very  irregular, 
or  when  it  is  difficult  to  see  which  way  it  runs, 
is  to  "  score "  the  edge  with  several  oblique 
cuts,  as  in  Fig.  5,  after  which  the  pieces  be- 


tween  these  cuts  can  be  cut  off,  working  in 
the  opposite  direction,  or  from  B  to  A.  New 
scores  are  then  made  and  new  pieces  split 
off.  As  soon  as  you  begin  to  approach 
the  line  A  B,  special  care  must  be  taken  to 
cut  so  that  the  knife  shall  run  out  rather 
than  in. 

The  operation  of  hewing,  with  hatchet  or 
ax,  is  just  the  same  as  this.  The  stick  must 
be  turned  with  alternately  one  and  the  other 


Wood  -  Working.  13 


end  up,  according  to  the  grain,  and  when 
much  wood  is  to  be  taken  off,  it  must  be 
scored  and  split  as  in  the  last  exercise.  The 
operation  may  be  tried  on  one  EXERCISES. 
of  the  sticks  of  fire- wood  used  Hewing  with 
in  Exercise  2.  Holding  the  stick  hatchet, 
upright  on  the  block  with  the  left  hand,  turn 
one  of  the  faces  towards  the  right.  Score 
obliquely  into  the  more  prominent  parts,  and 
then  split  them  off.  When  the  face  has  been 
made  pretty  nearly  plane,  smooth  it  off  with 
light  strokes  of  the  hatchet,  turning  up  now 
one  end  and  now  the  other,  so  as  to  cut  with 
the  grain.  Examine  your  work  critically  to 
see  whether  the  face  you  have  been  working 
on  is  straight  and  smooth. 


LESSON  III. 

Strength    of   Wood. 

WE   have    seen,  in  our   previous  exercises, 
that  it  is  much  easier  to  cut  and   split 
wood  lengthwise  than  crosswise.     We  will  now 
look  into  this  matter  more  closely. 

If  we  examine  with  a  microscope  the  struct- 
ure of  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  we  find  that  the 
wood  consists  of  fibers  or  threads  running 
lengthwise  of  the  trunk  and  adhering  to  each 
other  more  or  less  strongly.  In  many  plants 
these  fibers  are  longer  and  more  easily  sepa- 
rated than  in  trees,  and  they  are  used  for 
twisting  into  ropes  and  into  threads  to  be  used 
in  weaving.  By  examining  specimens  of  hemp 
and  of  flax,  you  will  learn  something  of 
the  length  and  strength  of  such  fibers.  In 
some  kinds  of  wood  these  fibers  adhere  so 
loosely  that  they  can  be  separated  by  heat, 
moisture,  and  bruising.  The  fibers  of  bass- 
wood  and  some  others  are  thus  separated,  to 

14 


?• 

UNIVERSITY 


Wood  -  Working: 


15 


be  used  in  making  paper.  Fig.  6  shows  the 
appearance  of  the  fibers  of  Scotch  Fir,  a  species 
of  Pine,  under  the  microscope.  Now,  while 
these  threads  have  singly  considerable  strength, 


Ftg.6. 

and  still  more,  of  course,  when  a  number  of 
them  are  taken  together,  their  adhesion  to 
each  other  is  not  so  great.  On  the  next  page 


16 


Manual    Training. 


is  shown  a  round  pine  stick,  six  inches  thick, 
with  the  bark  on,  just  as  it  grows  in  the  tree, 
and  we  will  cut  off  some  pieces  to  illustrate 
what  has  been  said.  The  stick  is  cut  square 
across  at  the  ends,  and  you  can  see  the  rings 
which  mark  how  much  the  trunk  grows  each 
year.  First  I  cut  off  a  cylindrical  piece  six 
inches  long,  Fig.  7.  Next,  from  this,  I  split 
off  with  an  ax  or  a  draw-knife  some  pieces 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  beginning  at  the 
outside,  and  splitting  wider  and  wider  pieces, 


CL 


b 
S 


till  I  get  one  four  or  five  inches  wide,  by 
splitting  along  the  lines  a  6,  a  c.  In  the 
piece  a  b  d  c  thus  cut  off  you  can  see  the 
edges  of  the  layers  of  fibers  of  which  the  ends 


Wood  -  Working.  17 


were  seen  in  the  cylindrical  block,  and,  com- 
paring carefully  the  end  of  the  thin  board 
with  the  face,  you  see  that  these  edges  con- 
stitute the  ''grain"  of  the  wood,  and  can  also 
see  why  they  are  closer  together  near  the  edge 
of  the  board  and  farther  apart  near  the  mid- 
dle, or  why  the  board  is  fine-grained  near  the 
edge  and  coarse-grained  at  the  middle. 

I  will  now  cut  off  from  a  b  d  c  a  strip  a  b  f  g, 
half  an  inch  wide,  with  a  fine  saw.  In  this 
strip,  which  I  will  mark  A,  the  grain  runs 
crosswise.  Next,  with  a  knife  or  hatchet,  I 
will  split  off  another  strip,  f  d  h  i,  also  half  an 
inch  wide,  in  which  the  grain  runs  lengthwise, 
and  which  I  will  mark  B.  Now  taking  the 
first  piece  by  the  ends  and  pulling  it,  I  can 
break  it  in  two ;  but  no  pull  that  I  can  give 
is  strong  enough  to  break  the  other.  (I  am 
careful  not  to  bend  either  of  the  sticks,  be- 
cause I  want  to  consider  now  only  the  ques- 
tion of  breaking  by  a  direct  pull ;  breaking  by 
bending  is  something  more  complicated,  and 
cannot  be  considered  till  later.)  I  hand  you 
all  now  a  number  of  such  strips,  of  both 
kinds,  and  you  readily  satisfy  yourselves  that 


18  Manual    Training. 

it  is  much  easier  to  separate    the    fibers    from 
each  other  than  to  break  them. 

After  we  have  thus  found  out  that  wood  is 
stronger  lengthwise  than  crosswise,  we  may  go 
a  step  further,  and  inquire  how  much  stronger. 
We  may  put  one  of  the  pieces  of  each  kind  in 
a  small  "  testing-machine,"  and  apply  an  in- 
creasing force  to  it  till  it  breaks.  With  such 
a  machine  we  find  that  the  piece  A  is 
broken  by  a  pull  of  65  pounds,  while  it  takes 
700  pounds  to  break  B,  and,  as  the  two  pieces 
are  of  the  same  size,  we  conclude  that  this 
kind  of  wood  is  about  eleven  times  as  strong 
lengthwise  as  it  is  crosswise.  The  operation 
of  "  testing,"  and  the  machine  used  for  the 
purpose,  are  of  the  greatest  importance.  The 
architect  and  the  engineer  make  use  of  power- 
ful machines,  in  which  large  bars  and  columns 
can  be  strained  till  they  break,  and  the  break- 
ing force  measured.  At  the  proper  time  you 
will  find  no  difficulty  in  understanding  these 
larger  machines  and  operations,  if  you  have 
understood  the  smaller  ones.  In  the  machine 
shown  in  Fig.  8,  the  piece  to  be  broken  is 
held  by  the  clamps  A  and  B.  The  wheel  C 


Wood  -  Working. 


19 


being  turned  the  screw  D  is  drawn  down, 
which  raises  the  other  end,  E,  of  the  lever, 
E  F,  and  stretches  the  piece  till  it  breaks.  The 
index,  (?,  on  the  spring-balance  shows  how 
great  is  the  force  applied  at  F;  and  the 


Fiyf 


force  applied  at  E  is  as  many  times  greater 
than  this  as  the  length  of  H  F  is  greater 
than  that  of  E  H.  As  the  piece  stretches 
before  breaking,  the  pull  is  applied  at  first 
by  means  of  the  screw  /,  and  afterwards  by  C. 


20  Manual    Training. 

Our  experiments  with  these  pieces  of  wood 
agree  with  our  observations  on  the  action  of 
cutting-tools.  The  knife  and  the  hatchet, 
when  cutting  square  across  the  fibers,  pene- 
trate but  a  short  distance,  unless  a  very  great 
force  is  applied,  but  when  cutting  between  the 
fibers  they  are  much  more  easily  pressed  for- 
ward. With  such  tools,  therefore,  we  were 
obliged  to  cut  lengthwise  or  obliquely,  and 
found  it  nearly  impossible  to  cut  a  thick  piece 
square  across.  If  we  wish  to  do  this  we  must 
use  another  tool.  The  tool  specially  designed 
for  this  work  is  the  cross-cut-saw,  which  we 
will  study  in  our  next  lesson. 


I/ESSCXN"    IV. 

The    Cross-cut-saw. 

T7XAMINE  your  saw  carefully.  You  find 
.L/  that  it  consists  of  a  number  of  triangular 
teeth,  each  of  which  acts  as  a  sort  of  knife. 
Count  the  number  of  teeth  to  the  inch.  You 
will  find  this  different  in  saws  that  are  in- 
tended for  different  purposes.  The  one  that 
you  have  is  a  "  cross-cut"  saw  for  moderately 
soft  wood.  If  you  now  examine  one  of  these 
teeth,  you  will  find  that  it  is  pointed,  and 
the  front  edge  is  sharp.  It  would  be  a  use- 
ful exercise,  and  would  help  you  to  under- 
stand the  mode  of  action  of  the  saw,  if  you 
would  cut  out  with  your  knife  from  a  piece 
of  thin  wood  (say  -J-  of  an  inch  thick)  a 
model  of  half  a  dozen  teeth  of  each  of  your 
various  saws  as  you  become  acquainted  with 
them.  When  you  push  the  saw  across  the 
grain,  each  of  these  teeth  makes  a  cut  across 

the  fibers,  just  such  as  you  can  make  by  hold- 

21 


22  Manual    Training. 

ing  your  knife  upright  and  drawing  it  across 
the  grain.  Next,  examining  the  successive 
teeth,  you  find  the  alternate  ones  sharpened  in 
different  ways.  While  one  has  its  sharp  edge 
towards  the  left,  the  next  has  its  edge  towards 
the  right.  Thus  the  two  sets  of  teeth  make 
two  different  cuts  across  the  grain,  and  these 
cuts  are  at  a  distance  apart  equal  to  the 
thickness  of  the  saw,  or  a  little  more,  inas- 
much as  the  teeth  are  spread  apart,  or  "  set." 
All  this  you  will  easily  make  out  if  you  study 
attentively  the  saw  itself,  and  not  merely  this 
description. 

Now,  try  to  make  with  your  knife  just  such 
a  cut  across  the  grain  as  one  of  these  teeth 
makes.  You  have  a  piece  of  waste  wood 
which  you  will  keep  by  you  for  this  and  sim- 
ilar experiments.  Hold  your  knife  upright  on 
the  piece  and  draw  it  along,  across  the  grain. 
You  find,  as  you  have  found  before,  that  you 
cannot  cut  very  deep,  because  the  wood  at  the 
side  of  the  knife  is  not  removed,  and  thus  the 
cut  is  not  wide  enough  to  let  the  knife  enter; 
but  with  the  saw  it  is  different.  When  one 
knife  or  tooth  has  made  its  cut,  the  next 


Wood  -  Working.  23 


knife  not  only  makes  another  cut  very  near 
and  parallel  to  the  first,  but  it  also  tears  off 
the  little  piece  of  wood  between  the  cuts.  The 
third  tooth,  therefore,  is  able  to  cut  a  little 
deeper,  and  the  fourth  tooth  tears  off  a  little 
more,  and  so  on.  Thus  the  saw  makes  a  clean 
cut  with  parallel  sides,  and  wastes  only  a  small 
amount  of  wood. 

We  can  now  go  on  to  the  use  of  the  cross- 
cut saw.  On  your  bench  is  a  pierce  of  pine 
board  about  4  feet  6  inches  long,  6  inches  wide, 
and  f  of  an  inch  thick.  (Hereafter  we  will  in- 
dicate dimensions  like  this  in  the  following 
way:  6"xf"-4'  6",  which  will  be  read,  "Six 
inches  by  three-quarters  of  an  inch,  by  four 
feet  six  inches)."  The  board  is  what  is  called 
"  mill-dressed,"  that  is,  the  roughness  that  is 
always  found  on  boards  that  have  been  sawn 
from  the  log  has  been  planed  off  by  a  planing- 
machine,  leaving  a  tolerably  smooth  surface. 
The  piece  on  your  bench  has  been  cut  from 
the  end  of  the  board,  and  you  will  very  likely 
observe  that  in  the  first  place  it  is  not  square 
on  the  end,  and  in  the  next  place  that  it  is 
cracked  or  " checked"  at  the  end.  The  first 


24  Manual    Training. 

is  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  log  was  cut  with 
the  ax,  as  already  explained.  In  many  cases 
the  logs  are  cross-cut  with  a  saw,  and  then  the 
ends  of  the  boards  are  square.  The  cracks  or 
" checks"  we  will  explain  in  our  next  lesson. 

Now  lay  the  board  on  the  bench,  with  the 
checked  end  to  the  right,  and  we  will  proceed 
to  first  mark  it  square,  and  then  cut  it  square. 
For  the  first  purpose  we  will  use  the  try-square. 
Place  the  edge  of  the  wooden  part  of  the 
square  against  the  edge  of  the  board,  letting 
the  steel  blade  lie  flat  on  the  board  and  square 
across  it.  Then,  using  the  edge  of  the  blade 
as  a  ruler,  draw  a  pencil-mark;  this  will  run 
square  across  the  board.  You  must  be  care- 
ful in  drawing  this  line  not  to  vary  the  in- 
clination of  your  pencil,  or  you  will  make  a 
line  which  is  not  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the 
square,  and  therefore  not  perpendicular  to  the 
edge  of  the  board.  Draw  such  a  line  just 
far  enough  from  the  imperfect  end  to  leave 
out  all  the  worst  checks.  We  will  then  cut 
off  with  the  saw  the  imperfect  piece  thus 
marked. 

There  are  several  ways   in  which  the   board 


Wood  -  Working.  25 


may  be  held  while   we    are   making   this    cut. 
For    this    exercise    you    may    hold    it    in    the 
bench-vise.     Observe  how  the  vise     EXERCISE  7. 
works.     Open  it  to   the  width  of  cross-cutting 
your  board,  lay  the  board  in  it,      with  saw- 
with   the   imperfect   end   to   the   left   and    the 
marked  face  up,  and  screw  the  vise  up  so  as  to 
hold  the  board  firmly,  the   marked   piece   pro- 
jecting beyond  the  end  of  the  bench. 

Take  the  saw  in  your  right  hand.  (If  you 
are  left-handed  you  will  do  well,  nevertheless, 
to  learn  to  work  with  the  right  hand,  or, 
better  still,  to  work  equally  well  with  both 
hands.  It  is  sometimes  a  great  advantage  to 
be  able  to  use  either  hand ;  and  there  are  some 
things  which  can  only  be  done  with  the  right.) 
Set  the  saw  to  the  left  of  the  mark,  just  so 
far  that  when  you  cut  you  will  cut  exactly 
up  to  the  mark,  but  not  beyond  it.  Rest  the 
fingers  of  the  left  hand  on  the  wood  outside 
of  the  mark,  holding  the  thumb  up  for  a 
guide  to  steady  the  saw.  Draw  the  saw  back- 
ward, letting  it  rest  very  lightly  on  the  wood, 
till  you  have  made  sure  that  the  cut  will  be 
in  the  right  place;  then  push  it  forward,  still 


26  Manual    Training. 

bearing  lightly  on  the  wood.  Having  started 
the  cut  thus  with  a  few  gentle  strokes,  con- 
tinue it  with  long  strokes,  the  full  length  of 
the  saw.  Avoid  short,  jerky  strokes.  Draw 
the  saw  back  at  each  stroke  till  the  hand 
nearly  touches  the  shoulder,  and  push  it  for- 
ward till  the  handle  nearly  reaches  the  board. 
A  long,  steady  stroke  cuts  smoother  as  well 
as  faster,  is  a  more  agreeable  movement,  and 
affords  a  pleasant  exercise. 

Be  careful  not  to  bear  too  hard  on  the  saw ; 
if  you  do,  you  will  bend  the  saw,  and  it  will 
make  a  crooked  cut.  While  working,  watch 
the  saw,  to  see  that  you  keep  it  perpendicular 
to  the  surface  of  the  board.  When  the  cut 
is  nearly  finished  bear  still  more  lightly,  and 
work  with  gentler  strokes,  at  the  same  time 
holding  up  with  the  left  hand  the  piece  that 
you  are  cutting  off,  to  prevent  splintering 
when  the  saw  comes  through. 

Having  cut  off  one  piece  under  the  super- 
vision of  your  instructor,  you  may  mark  and 
cut  off  two  or  three  more,  each  exactly  an 
inch  wTide,  till  you  find  you  can  make  a 
smooth  and  square  cut.  If  you  need  more 


Wood  -  Working.  27 


practice  you  must  use  a  piece  of  waste  wood 
for  the  purpose,  not  reducing  the  length  of 
your  board  to  less  than  45".  The  squareness 
of  the  cut  should  be  tested  by  applying  the 
try-square,  with  the  wooden  part  first  against 
the  edge  of  the  board,  and  then  against  the 
face.  The  former  test  will  show  whether  you 
have  cut  square  across  the  board,  and  the  latter 
whether  you  have  cut  square  through. 


Y. 


Shrinking,     Checking,     and    Warping    of 
Timber. 

WE  have  already  observed  that  our  board 
was  cracked  at  the  end.  We  can  under- 
stand this  if  we  consider  what  happens  to 
timber  after  it  is  cut  down.  While  the  tree  is 
growing  its  pores  are  full  of  sap,  which  is 
mostly  water.  After  the  tree  is  cut,  the  sap 
begins  to  evaporate,  and  the  wood  shrinks. 
You  will  have  no  difficulty  in  finding,  all 
around  you,  proofs  of  this  shrinking.  Flooring- 
boards,  panels  of  doors,  bottoms  of  drawers, 
which  fit  well  when  first  put  in  place,  all  leave 
openings  after  a  while  by  shrinking.  Here  are 
several  "dowels,"  which  were  all  cut  from  the 
same  stick,  and  yesterday  they  all  fitted  well 
in  the  corresponding  holes  ;  but  half  of  them 
have  been  soaked  in  water  over  night,  and 
now  they  will  not  go  into  the  holes  at  all. 
The  shrinking  of  timber,  you  will  find, 

28 


Wood  -  Working.  29 


takes  place  only  in  the  width,  not  in  the 
length.  Examine  the  floor,  and  you  will  find 
that  it  is  only  the  joints  between  the  edges 
of  the  boards  that  have  opened.  When  two 
boards  have  been  put  together  end  to  end, 
the  joint  is  as  close  as  in  the  beginning. 
This  fact  is  very  striking,  and  should  be 
remembered.  The  shrinking  of  wood  causes 
endless  trouble  in  carpentry,  cabinet-work, 
and  building,  and  it  cannot  be  entirely  pre- 
vented ;  but,  by  taking  advantage  of  the  fact 
just  mentioned,  it  can  often  be  prevented 
from  doing  mischief.  We  shall  study  some 
of  these  methods  in  Lesson  21. 

When  the  drying  of  timber  goes  on  at  all 
parts  with  equal  rapidity,  the  piece  shrinks 
equally  in  all  parts,  and  keeps  its  shape  ;  but 
in  large  pieces  the  drying  goes  on  more 
rapidly  on  the  outside  than  on  the  inside, 
and  this  causes  important  changes  in  the 
shape  and  condition  of  the  wood.  We  shall 
look  at  these  changes  in  detail  by  and  by, 
but  for  the  present  it  will  be  sufficient  to 
note  the  following  facts. 

First,  as  the  outside  shrinks  faster  than  the 


, 

OF  THE  \ 

UTNIVERSITY) 
\SALI  FORM  lA:^-" 


30  Manual    Training. 

inside,  cracks  are  formed,  which  begin  on  the 
outside  and  gradually  extend  inward.  These 
cracks  are  largest  and  most  numerous  at  the 
ends  of  the  log,  where  the  drying  is  most 
rapid,  and  they  are  the  cracks  which  we 
have  already  noticed  in  our  boards. 

Secondly,  when  timber  has  been  cut  •  up,  if 
by  any  means  one  side  of  a  piece  is  pre- 
vented from  drying  as  fast  as  another,  the 
side  which  dries  most  rapidly,  and  therefore 
shrinks  most  rapidly,  becomes  hollow,  or  the 
piece  "  warps."  Or,  if  one  side  of  a  piece  of 
wood  which  has  been  dried  or  "seasoned"  is 
exposed  to  moisture,  that  side  swells  and 
becomes  convex,  and  again  the  piece  warps. 
Verify  these  statements  by  experiment,  laying 
several  pieces  of  board  six  or  eight  inches 
wide  and  of  about  the  same  length  on  the 
ground  for  some  hours,  or  even  on  your 
bench  if  they  have  not  been  very  well  sea- 
soned, setting  up  others  on  their  edge  so  that 
both  sides  may  be  equally  exposed  to  the  air, 
and  noting  carefully  the  results  after  several 
hours.  In  the  same  manner,  if  wood  has  been 
already  warped,  it  may  be  straightened  by 
exposing  it  in  the  proper  way. 


Wood -Working.  31 


(Samples  of  round  timber  stripped  of  the 
bark  should  be  exhibited,  showing  the  checks 
on  the  surface,  and  particularly  at  the  ends, 
as  well  as  one  sample  of  a  short  log,  cut  up 
into  boards,  showing  the  cracks  in  the  ends, 
and  the  edges  of  the  boards,  and  in  the  faces 
of  the  outside  boards  or  "slabs."  The  pupils 
should  be  made  to  observe  for  themselves  the 
position  and  direction  of  these  cracks  in 
boards  cut  from  different  parts  of  the  log. 
They  should  be  made  to  observe  how  check- 
ing and  warping  continue  after  wood  lias 
been  made  up,  if  it  is  exposed,  and  how  they 
are  prevented  by  painting  or  varnishing). 


VI. 

Working   Sketches. 

IT  is  proposed  to  make  a  box  from  the  piece 
of  board  used  in  your  seventh  exercise. 
The  box  is  to  be  made,  not  of  any  size  and 
shape  that  you  may  happen  to  give  it,  but 
exactly  according  to  given  dimensions.  This 
is  extremely  important,  for,  when  an  object  is 
wanted  for  a  given  purpose,  it  is  often  worth- 
less if  not  of  just  the  right  size  and  shape. 

The  shape  and  dimensions  of  this  box,  as 
of  any  other  piece  of  work,  can  be  shown  in 
a  working  drawing  or  a  working  sketch.  The 
former  name  is  given  to  a  drawing  carefully 
made  "  to  scale,"  and  the  latter  to  a  drawing 
made  with,  less  care,  and  which  may  be  drawn 
freehand,  and  only  approximately  to  scale.  In 
the  latter  case  the  dimensions  are  marked 
on  the  corresponding  parts  of  the  drawing, 
and  can  be  read  off;  in  the  former  they  are 
ascertained  by  measuring  carefully  the  dimen- 

32 


Wood  -  Working.  33 


sions  of  the  drawing,  and  making  the  proper 
allowance  for  the  "  scale,"  as  will  be  under- 
stood presently. 

Here  is  a  block  of  wood,  of  which  we  will 
make  a  sketch  first  and  a  drawing  afterwards. 
Measuring  the  block  with  the  rule,  we  find  it 
is  9  inches  long,  5  inches  wide,  and  3^  inches 
thick,  or  as  we  have  agreed  to  represent  it, 
5"  x  31."  -  9".  If  we  look  directly  at  the  front 
of  the  block,  we  see  a  rectangle  9" x  3£", 
which  we  indicate  by  drawing,  freehand,  a 
rectangle  whose  long  side  is  nearly  three 
times  as  great  as  its  short  side,  and  writing 
on  these  sides  their  dimensions,  as  in  Fig.  9. 

This  figure  we 

call   the   Ele- 


vation, or  the       ^ 
Front  Elevat- 
ion.      If    we 

Jook    straight  ^ .     Q 

down  on   the 

block,  we  see  a  rectangle  9" x  5".  This  we 
represent  in  a  similar  way,  Fig.  10,  and  call 
the  representation  the  Plan. 

From  these  two,  even  if  we   had  never  seen 


34 


Manual    Training. 


the   block,  we   should    be  able   to    form  a  cor- 
rect picture  in  the  mind  of  its  size  and  shape, 

and  a  work- 
man would  be 
able  to  make 
one  just  like 
it.  Sometimes, 
however,  there 
are  details  in 


the 
the 


of 


o  b  i  e  c  t 


figure 


which  these  two  drawings  fail  to  show.  Thus, 
if  there  were  a  round  hole  in  the  right-hand 
end,  neither  of  these  would  show  it.  In  such 
case  a  third  figure  is  added,  called  the  End 
Elevation.  This  is  the  view  that  we  get  if 

we  look  directly  at  the  end ^ 

of  the  object:   in   the   case 

of  this   block   it  would   be 

another  rectangle,  3J"  x  5", 

Eig.    11.      If  we    wish    to 

show    the    hole,    we    must 

ascertain    exactly    its    size 

and  position,  and   show  them  properly  in    the 

drawing.     If  the   hole   is   1"  in  diameter,    and 


.  //. 


Wood  -  Working. 


35 


placed  3"  from  one  of  the  narrow  faces  and 
V  from  one  of  the  wide  faces,  we  indicate 
this  as  in  Fig.  12,  making  the  drawing  per- 
haps a  little  larger  than  rtt 
before,  so  as  to  be  able 
to  write  all  the  necessary 
dimensions.  This,  how- 
ever, does  not  show  how 
deep  the  hole  is.  Suppose 
we  find  it  to  be  2"  deep. 
Looking  at  the  front  of  the  block  again, 
you  will  understand  that,  if  we  could  look 
into  the  block,  the  hole  would  appear  as  at 
a  6,  Fig.  13.  As  the  lines  at  a  b  are,  how- 

ever,  hidden 

by  the  ma- 
.  terial  of  the 
block,  we 
will  indicate 
them  by  dot- 
ted lines.  In 
the  same  manner  the  hole  may  be  shown 
in  the  plan.  The  three  figures  being  now 
brought  together  as  in  Fig.  14,  they  give 
complete  information  as  to  the  size  and  shape 


3" 


36 


Manual    Training. 


of  the  block.  This  group  of  drawings  thus 
marked,  with  the  dimensions  of  all  the  parts, 
we  will  call  a  "Figured  Sketch"  or  "  Work- 
ing Sketch."  It  is  not  necessary  that  the 
lines  be  ruled,  provided  they  are  drawn  toler- 


2" 


5: 

X. 


ably  straight,  and  it  is  not  necessary  that  they 
be  exactly  in  true  proportion  to  each  other, 
though  it  is  best  to  have  them  nearly  so. 
Every  dimension  must  be  given  in  at  least 
one  of  the  drawings.  If,  for  instance,  the  fig- 


Wood  -  Working.  37 


tire  3"  in  the  plan  were  left  out,  the  workman 
who  should  try  to  make  the  block  from  this 
sketch  would  not  know  where  to  bore  the 
hole,  unless  this  figure  were  given  in  the  End 
Elevation.  A  dimension,  however,  which  is 
given  in  one  drawing  need  not  be  repeated 
in  another.  Thus  the  figure  9"  in  the 
Elevation  need  not  be  repeated  in  the  Plan, 
though  the  repetition  does  no  harm,  unless 
the  figures  are  too  crowded. 

Having  made  figured  sketches  of  the  block, 
you  may  now,  for  exercise,  make  similar 
sketches  of  a  large  nail  or  spike,  a  bolt  with 
a  nut,  a  six-sided  lead-pencil,  a  try-square,  or 
other  simple  object.  In  our  next  lesson  we 
will  undertake  a  working  drawing. 


VII. 

Working    Drawings. 

IF,  instead    of  drawing  the  lines  of  our  last 
lesson  freehand,  and  writing  the  dimensions 
of  the  object    on    the   drawing,    we    rule    the 
lines    with     care,    and    make    them    all     bear 
exactly  the  same  ratio  to  the  lines  they  repre- 


foot*  'A- 


Sca/te  ofJ/ncJves, 


sent,    we    have    a     "  Drawing     to     Scale,"     or 
"Working    Drawing,"    as    in    Fig.    15,    which 

38 


Wood  -  Working.  39 


shows    the   plan,  elevation,  and   side-elevation 
of  a  box. 

The  scale,  or  ratio  of  the  dimensions  in  the 
drawing  to  the  corresponding  dimensions  of 
the  object  must  be  indicated  on  the  drawing. 
This  may  be  done  in  either  of  three  ways. 
Suppose,  for  instance,  the  lines  of  the  drawing 
to  be  one  quarter  as  long  as  the  correspond- 
ing lines  of  the  object.  First,  we  may  write 
on  the  drawing  "  Scale  % ".  Or,  secondly,  we 
may  write  "  Scale  £  "  -  V  ",  or  "  Scale  3"  =  1'  ". 
Or  thirdly,  we  may  draw  a  straight  line  of 
any  convenient  length,  divide  it  into  parts, 
of  which  each  represents  one  inch  on  the 
object  (or  one  foot,  or  one  meter),  and  num- 
ber these  parts  1,  2,  3,  etc.  In  the  case  in 
question  where  the  scale  is  J,  each  of  the 
parts  must  be  actually  one  quarter  of  an  inch 
long.  If  the  drawing  had  been  made  to  a 
smaller  scale,  as  -^  for  instance,  which  might 
be  written  "Scale  TV  ",  or  "1"=12"",  or  "  1" 
=  1'"  the  spaces  would  have  been  each  one 
inch  long,  and  would  have  represented  each 
one  foot  in  the  object.  In  Fig.  15  all  three 
of  the  modes  of  representing  the  scale  are 
shown, 


40  Manual    Training. 

The  scale  must  be  large  enough  to  enable 
the  workman  to  determine  from  the  drawing 
the  dimensions  of  every  part  of  the  object. 
Thus,  in  the  last  figure,  to  determine  the 
size  of  the  hole  in  the  block,  the  workman 
would  measure  with  the  compasses  its  diame- 
ter on  the  drawing.  Finding  this  to  be  one 
quarter  of  an  inch,  he  would  know  that  the 
diameter  of  the  hole  was  to  be  one  inch. 
Next,  to  determine  where  to  place  the  hole, 
he  would  measure  the  distances  on  the  draw- 
ing from  two  sides  of  the  end  elevation,  and 
finding  these  distances  to  be  each  one  quarter 
of  an  inch,  he  would  know  that  the  hole  was 
to  be  one  inch  from  each  of  the  corresponding 
faces  of  the  block,  and  therefore  the  center  of 
the  hole  one  inch  and  a  half  from  each  of 
these  faces.  If  the  scale  had  been  much 
smaller,  say  iV'^1",  it  would  have  been 
difficult  to  measure  exactly  the  dimensions  on 
the  drawing,  and  therefore  difficult  to  deter- 
mine exactly  the  dimensions  of  the  object. 

When  an  object  is  large,  or  contains  many 
details,  it  may  be  impossible  to  make  the 
scale  large  enough  to  show  all  the  details  in 


Wood  -  Working. 


41 


such  a  way  that  the  workman  can  get  their 
true  dimensions  from  the  drawing.  It  is  then 
necessary  to  add  separate  drawings  of  some  of 
the  details.  These  are  only  working  drawings 
on  a  larger  scale.  Of  course  the  scale  of  these 
drawings  must  be  indicated  also. 

ti  n*  W      %"          8"          VA* 


In  addition  to  the  two  elevations,  plan,  and 
drawings  of  details,  there  are  sometimes  need- 
ed other  drawings,  called  "  sections,"  which 
will  be  explained  hereafter,  when  they  come 
to  be  needed. 

You   will    now   be   able   to   understand    the 


42  Manual    Training. 

working  sketch,  Fig.  16,  of  the  box  which 
we  propose  to  make.  The  front  elevation 
shows  that  the  box  is  13-^ 7  long  and  6"  high, 
and  the  end  elevation,  or  the  plan,  shows  that 
it  is  9J"  wide.  The  dotted  lines  in  the  front 
elevation  show  that  the  front  and  back  pieces 
are  fastened  on  over  the  ends  of  the  end 
pieces.  The  same  fact  may  be  learned  from 
an  inspection  of  the  end  elevation  and  plan. 
The  figure  f"  shows  that  the  wood  used  is  f  " 
thick.  As  there  may  be  a  doubt  whether  the 
figures  12"  and  8"  in  the  two  elevations  are 
the  inside  or  the  outside  measurements  of 


.  17. 


the  box,  it  is  best  to  remove  this  ambiguity 
in  the  following  way.  Let  the  figure  which 
indicates  any  dimension  be  written  in  the 
middle  of  a  line  drawn  parallel  to  the  line 


Wood  -  Working.  43 


to  which  it  belongs,  and  terminated  by  arrow- 
heads exactly  opposite  the  ends  of  the  line. 
Thus,  Fig.  17,  means  that  the  inside  length 
of  the  box  is  12  inches,  and  Fig.  18,  means 


-A?1 


that  the  outside  length  is  12  inches.  In  a 
working  drawing  there  would  be  no  such 
ambiguity  as  this. 


LESSON  VIII. 

Making   a    Nailed    Box.  —  Laying    out    the 
Work. 

TAKING  dimensions  from  Fig.  16,  we  see 
that  we  shall  need  for  our  box  two  pieces 
of  £  inch  stuff  6"  x  8"  for  the  ends,  and  two 
pieces  6"xl3i"  for  the  front  and  back.  Later 
we  shall  need  two  pieces  each  9J"  x  13£"  for 
the  top  and  bottom,  but  for  the  present  we 
will  leave  them  out  of  consideration,  to 
simplify  the  drawings  and  the  laying  out  of 
our  work. 

Take  the  piece  of  board  used  in  Lesson  IV. 
If  the  work  of  that  lesson  was  well  done,  the 
piece  is  now  square  on  one  end,  and  a  little 
longer  than  is  necessary  for  the  four  pieces. 
Furthermore,  if  it  has  been  properly  exposed 
to  the  air,  it  has  dried  well  without  warping. 

If  it  is  not  square  on  one  end,  make  it  so 
with  the  least  possible  waste  of  material, 
remembering  that,  if  you  get  it  less  than 
about  44  inches  long  it  will  be  spoiled.  44 


Wood  -  Working.  45 


Now,  with  your  rule,  lay  off  8  inches  from 
the  squared  end,  along  the  best  edge  of  the 
board.  Mark  this  edge  with  your  lead-pencil, 
with  a  cross  or  other  mark,  to  distinguish  it 
as  the  edge  from  which  you  will  work.  Place 
the  wooden  handle  of  your  square  against 
this  edge,  and  draw  a  pencil-mark  square 
across  the  board,  exactly  8  inches  from  the 
squared  end.  You  have  now  marked  off  one 
of  the  ends  of  the  box,  and  might  proceed  to 
cut  it  off;  but  it  is  best  to  perform  all  opera- 
tions of  one  kind  at  once,  and  we  will  therefore 
"lay  out"  all  the  pieces  before  commencing 
to  cut  them  off. 

If   you    should    draw    another     pencil-line 
just  8  inches  from  the  first,  and  then  proceed 
to   cut   out   the    pieces,   they   would   turn   out 
too  short   by  the   amount  of  the    EXERCISE  8. 
thickness  of  the  saw ;  and  though    Laying  out  a 
in  comparison  with  some  dimen-          box- 
sions  this   thickness  is  very  small,  in  compari- 
son with  some   others  it   is  very   considerable, 
and   it   should,   therefore,   never   be   neglected. 
Allowance     must    always    be    made    for    the 
" waste"  of  a   saw  in   cutting  to   a  mark.     As 


46  Manual 


you  do  not  know  yet  how  much  this  waste  is, 

you  may,  after   having   marked   off  your  first 

piece  8  inches  long,  begin  a  cut  with  the  saw 

just  outside  of  the  mark,  but  quite  close  to  it, 

so  as  to  leave  the  piece  exactly  8  inches  long. 

EXERCISE  9.     As  soon  as  you  have  cut  a  little 

Cross-cutting    way  into  the  piece,  say   an  inch, 

with  saw.      make   another   mark  with  pencil 

and  square,  parallel  to   the  first,  and   so   near 

to  it  that  the  two  marks  just  contain  the  cut 

between   them,  and   no   more,   as    in    Fig.    19. 

From  these 
(  you  can  learn, 
\  by  measuring 


a  J9 

between  them, 

or  by  observing  carefully  and  remembering, 
how  much  the  saw  wastes.  You  will  soon 
be  able  to  make  the  proper  allowance  for 
this  waste  by  the  eye  without  measuring. 

Now  lay  off  8  inches  from  the  second  mark, 
draw  a  third  mark  and  a  fourth  parallel 
to  it  for  the  waste.  Then  lay  off  13^  inches, 
mark  off  the  waste  again,  lay  off  13^  inches 
again  and  mark  off  the  waste  again,  and 


Wood  -  Working.  47 


the  work  is  completely  laid  out.  Your  piece 
of  wood  will  now  be  marked  as  in  Fig.  20, 
in  which  1  and  2  are  the  ends,  3  and  4 
are  the  front  and  back,  and  5  is  the  waste. 


Z 


After  this  lesson  you  will  not  make  double 
marks  for  your  saw-cuts,  but  will  make  the 
necessary  allowance  for  the  waste  by  the 
eye. 

In  making  pencil-marks,  as  in  this  exercise 
you  must  be  careful  to  apply  the  square 
always  to  the  same  edge  of  your  board, 
distinguishing  this  edge,  as  already  pointed 
out,  by  a  cross  or  other  mark.-  Indeed,  this 
is  an  important  principle  in  all  laying  out  of 
work.  The  reason  of  it  is  that,  unless  the 
opposite  edges  are  parallel,  lines  drawn 
perpendicular  to  them  with  the  square  will 
not  be  parallel ;  but  lines  drawn  perpendicular 
to  the  same  edge,  provided  that  edge  is 
straight,  will  always  be  parallel.  Try  this 


48  Manual    Training. 

with  your  waste-piece,  whose  opposite  sides 
are  not  quite  parallel,  drawing  your  two  per- 
pendiculars pretty  close  together. 

In  laying  out  your  work  you  must  see  that 
each  piece  is,  if  possible,  free  from  knots 
and  cracks,  particularly  at  the  ends,  where 
the  nails  will  have  to  be  driven.  If  there 
should  be  a  knot  at  any  one  of  these  places, 
at  the  boundary  between  3  and  4  for  instance, 
you  must  try  to  throw  the  knot  out,  by 
shifting  4  to  the  right,  and  making  the  waste 
piece  fall  in  the  middle,  where  the  knot  is. 

Now  place  the  board  in  the  vise,  as  in 
Exercise  7,  and  cut  off  the  four  pieces,  being 
very  careful  to  keep  the  saw  between  the 
double  marks,  to  cut  square,  and  to  go  gently 
towards  the  end  of  the  cut,  so  as  to  avoid 
splintering.  When  the  four  pieces  are  cut  off 
they  should  be  compared  with  each  other  two 
and  two,  measured,  and  tested  with  the 
square. 


LiESSOK    IX. 

Hammer    and    Nails.  —  Putting   a    Box 
Together. 

IN  using  the  hammer,  the  first  thing  to 
learn  is  to  swing  it  with  a  free  movement  of 
the  arm  from  the  elbow  rather  than  from  the 
wrist,  and  the  second  is  to  strike  squarely 
with  the  whole  face  of  the  hammer  rather 
than  with  one  edge.  Begin  by  striking  a 
moderately  hard  blow  on  your  piece  of  waste 
wood,  in  one  corner  of  the  piece.  Examine 
the  mark  made.  You  will  probably  find  it 
deeper  on  one  side  than  on  the  other,  show- 
ing that  you  have  not  struck  EXERCISE  10. 
squarely.  Strike  again,  by  the  striking  with 
side  of  the  first  mark,  and  ex-  hammer, 
amine  the  result,  and  so  on,  over  the  whole 
face  of  your  piece  of  wood,  or  until  you  can 
strike  hard  and  square. 

Take  a  dozen   four-penny  nails    and   exam- 
ine them.     (Note   that  " four-penny"  probably 

49 


Manual    Training. 


meant,  originally,  weighing  four  pounds  to  the 
hundred,  and  thus  four-penny,  six-penny,  etc. 
give  some  indication  of  the  size  of  the  nails.) 
Observe  that  the  nails  have  two  sides  parallel, 
as  shown  in  the  side-elevation,  Fig.  21,  b, 
while  the  other  two  sides,  as 
shown  in  a,  act  as  a  wedge,  and 
will  split  the  wood  if  it  is  weak. 
The  wedge,  therefore,  must  be 
made  to  act  in  the  direction  in 
which  the  wood  is  strongest,  that 
is,  as  we  learned  in  Lesson  III., 
in  the  direction  of  the  length 
of  the  fibers. 

Now,  holding   a   nail   between 
the    fingers   and    thumb    of    the 
left  hand,  in  the  proper   position  to  enter  the 
wood  without  splitting,  drive  it  into  your  piece 
of  waste  wood  f  "  from  the  end,  till  the  point 
EXERCISE  ii.    just  shows  through  on  the  other 

Driving  and      s^e-         Now      draw      it      Out      with 

drawing  a  nail,  the  claw  of  the  hammer.  To 
do  this  place  a  block  of  wood  under  the  head 
of  the  hammer  to  lift  it  up  to  the  height 
of  the  head  of  the  nail ;  catch  the  head 


Wood  -  Working.  51 


of  the  nail  with  the  claw,  and  while  the 
hammer  rests  on  the  block  with  the  handle 
up,  swing  the  end  of  the  handle  over  so  as 
to  raise  the  claw,  and  the  nail  will  come 
out.  If  the  block  is  not  used  to  raise  the 
hammer,  the  nail  will  be  bent.  Drive  the 
nail  in  the  same  way  and  draw  it  several 
times,  always  £"  from  the  end  of  the  piece, 
but  always  in  the  first  position,  or  so  as 
not  to  split  the  piece.  Afterwards,  drive  it  sev- 
eral times  in  the  second  position,  at  the  same 
distance  from  the  end,  and  observe  that  you 
will  nearly  always  split  the  piece.  Note  well 
these  two  positions.  Observe  that  you  can 
distinguish  the  one  from  the  other  by  the 
shape  of  the  head  or  by  the  way  the  nail 
feels  between  the  fingers,  and  you  should 
never  hereafter  split  a  piece  of  wood  by  care- 
lessly driving  a  nail  in  the  wrong  way. 

Now,    taking   the    long    sides    of  your    box, 
draw  a  light  pencil-mark  across   each  end,  f" 
from  the  edge,  and  make  on  this    EXERCISE  12. 
line  two  dots,  each  an  inch  from   Nailing  a  box. 
the    end    of    the    line,    and    a    third    half-way 
between  them,  for  the  places  where  the  nails 


52  Manual    Training. 

are  to  be  driven,  as  in  Fig.  22.  Drive  six 
nails  nearly  through  at  these  places.  Then,  set- 
ting one  of  the  short  sides  upright  in  the  vise, 
lay  the  end  of  the  long  piece  on  it,  exactly 

as  it  is  to  go 

when  the  box 
is  put  to- 
gether,  being 
careful,  while 
holding  the  long  piece  in  the  left  hand,  to 
let  the  fore-finger  reach  round  the  edge,  so 
as  to  feel  whether  the  edge  of  the  upper  piece 
and  the  face  of  the  lower  piece  are  exactly 
even.  Drive  the  middle  nail  through  into 
the  end  piece,  but  do  not  drive  its  head 
quite  down.  This  will  now  hold  the  piece 
firmly  enough,  while  allowing  you  to  adjust 
it  and  drive  the  other  two  nails  down  to  the 
same  distance.  The  heads  of  the  nails  are 
left  projecting  a  little,  so  that  it  may  be 
easy  to  draw  them  if  necessary.  The  second 
comer  may  be  nailed  in  the  same  way,  and 
the  six  nails  driven  "  home,"  that  is,  till  the 
heads  are  even  with  the  surface  of  the  wood, 
taking  care  not  to  bruise  the  wood  with  the 


Wood  -  Working.  53 


hammer.  For  the  third  and  fourth  corners 
lay  the  nailed  piece  down  on  the  bench, 
with  the  short  pieces  standing  up,  lay  the 
fourth  side  in  place,  holding  it  as  you  did 
the  first,  and  drive  the  other  nails  with  the 
same  precautions  as  before. 

If  the  pieces  have  been  properly  cut  and 
properly  nailed,  the  box  will  now  be  square 
at  all  its  corners,  the  diagonals  will  be  of 
equal  lengths,  and  when  it  is  set  on  the  bench 
all  the  corners  will  rest  on  the  bench  and 
the  sides  will  be  perpendicular  to  it.  You 
should  test  your  work  as  to  these  particulars 
with  rule  and  square. 


X. 

The    same    Continued. 

r  I  AHERE  will  now  no  doubt  be  two  classes 
JL  of  boxes  in  the  class,  as  the  result  of  the 
last  exercise.  The  first  will  be  smaller  or 
larger  than  they  were  intended  to  be,  or  they 
will  be  not  quite  square  at  the  corners,  or 
they  will  be  "winding,"  that  is,  when  set 
on  a  flat  surface  like  that  of  the  bench  they 
will  touch  at  three  corners  only.  The  second 
will  be  true  to  dimensions  and  shape,  and 
will  be  "  out  of  winding." 

The  test  for  "  winding "  is  important,  and 
may  be  made  in  several  ways.  We  cannot 
always  depend  on  the  test  by  laying  on  the 
bench  as  already  described,  since  the  bench 
itself  may  be  in  winding,  or  the  object  may 
be  too  large  to  be  tested  in  this  way,  or  too 
small  to  show  the  defect.  A  second,  and 
more  common  way  of  testing  an  object  of 
moderate  size,  such  as  one  of  your  boxes,  is 

54 


Wood  -  Working.  55 


to  hold  it  up  before  one  eye,  keeping  the 
other  closed,  and  look  across  one  of  the 
edges  at  the  other  edge.  If  the  front  edge 
exactly  covers  the  hind  edge,  there  is  no 
winding ;  but  if  one  end  of  the  hind  edge 
stands  up  above  the  front  edge  when  the 
other  end  is  exactly  covered,  the  object  is 
winding.  When  the  object  is  very  small  it 
is  sometimes  hard  to  detect  the  fault  in  this 
way.  In  this  case  the  error  may  be  exagger- 
ated and  made  perceptible  by  means  of 
11  winding  sticks."  These  are  two  "  straight 
edges"  or  strips  of  wood  with  EXERCISE  is. 
straight  and  parallel  edges.  Sup-  Test  for  Win(j_ 
pose  two  such  strips,  say  ins- 
2"x  i-"- 24  ;  to  be  laid  across  your  box  at 
opposite  ends.  If  the  winding  be  too  small 
to  be  noticed  when  you  look  across  the  box 
itself,  you  may  yet  be  able  to  detect  it  when 
it  is  exaggerated  by  these  long  sticks.  In 
this  way,  even  the  winding  in  the  edge  of 
a  board  may  be  detected. 

This  and  the  other  tests  being  applied,  we 
will  suppose  your  boxes  divided  into  two 
classes,  as  already  described.  Those  of  the 


56  Manual    Training. 

second  class,  being  perfect,  or  nearly  so,  we 
might  finish  up,  by  furnishing  them  with 
bottoms  of  the  same  material,  fastened,  like 
the  sides,  with  nails.  These  boxes,  being  all 
of  the  same  size,  might  be  piled  up  in  a  set 
or  "nest,"  and  used  for  the  stowing  of  nails, 
screws,  glue,  and  other  materials  used  in  the 
shop.  Instead  of  doing  this,  however,  we  will 
take  the  boxes  of  both  classes  apart,  and 
use  the  material  in  making  another  set  of 
boxes  of  better  finish  than  these,  and  requir- 
ing the  use  of  other  tools  and  more  practiced 
hands. 

To  knock  your  box  apart  without  splitting 
it,  hold  it  by  one  of  the  long  sides  and 

EXERCISE  14.    strike  the  other  long  side,  inside 

Taking  apart    of   the    corner,    with    a    hammer. 

nailed  work.  DO  not  strike  directly  on  the 
wood,  in  which  case  you  will  probably  split 
it,  and  certainly  bruise  it,  but  on  a  strip  laid 
in  the  corner  to  receive  the  blow.  If  there  is 
not  room  to  strike  with  the  face  of  the 
hammer,  strike  with  the  side.  Striking  in 
one  corner  and  the  other  alternately,  you  will 
probably  separate  the  box  at  two  corners,  and 


Wood  -  Working.  57 


so  take  off  one  of  the  long  sides,  after  which, 
holding  the  short  sides  and  repeating  the 
operation  with  the  same  care  as  before,  you 
will  take  off  the  other  side.  Drive  out  the 
nails  by  striking  them  on  the  points,  and 
straighten  them  by  striking  them  gently  with 
the  hammer  on  the  convex  side  while  holding 
them  on  a  block  of  wood,  —  not  on  the  bench, 
as  you  would  thus  mar  the  bench. 

For  the  new  box  that  we  propose  to  make, 
we  will  reduce  a  little  the  thickness  of  our 
pieces  of  wood,  and  give  them  a  finer  surface 
than  the  mill-dressed  surface  that  they 
received  from  the  planing-machine.  Your 
exercises  with  the  hatchet  and  the  knife  have 
shown  you  the  difficulty,  if  not  the  impossi- 
bility, of  finishing  a  piece  smooth  with  either 
of  these  tools.  You  will  be  'ready,  therefore, 
to  appreciate  the  value  of  the  plane. 


XI. 

The    Jack-Plane. 

YOU  have  seen  how  the  knife  or  the 
hatchet  tends  to  follow  the  grain  of  the 
wood,  and,  if  the  grain  happens  to  run  inward 
rather  than  outward,  splits  off  large  pieces, 
thus  making  fine  work  impossible.  The  knife 
or  "  iron "  of  the  plane  is  prevented  from 
doing  this,  and  so,  with  this  tool,  work  may 
be  finished  up  very  smooth.  The  plane-iron, 
as  you  see,  is  set  in  a  block  of  wood  through 
which  it  projects  only  a  short  distance,  and 
as  the  block  rests  on  the  surface  of  the  wood, 
the  iron  cannot  penetrate  beyond  this  distance. 
If  you  set  the  plane  down,  on  the  surface  of 
a  board,  and  press  down  on  it,  the  iron  will 
cut  into  the  wood  until  the  block  comes  in 
contact  with  the  board,  and  then  it  can  go 
no  further.  If  now  we  push  the  plane 
forward,  the  edge  of  the  iron  moves  say 
from  a  to  6,  Fig.  23 ;  but,  instead  of  following 

58 


Wood  -  Working.  59 


the  grain,  and  cutting  deeper  and  deeper,  it 
is  forced  to  remain  at  the  same  distance 
below  the  surface.  It  thus  lifts  up  the  thin 
layer  or  "  shaving,"  bending  it  upwards  as  it 


Fig.  *». 


advances,  and  delivering  it  out  of  the  "  mouth  " 
of  the  plane.  The  tool  thus  described  is  the 
plane  with  a  single  iron. 

When  we  use  this  tool,  however,  although 
the  iron  itself  cannot  penetrate  far  into  the 
wood,  it  is  still  possible  that,  while  the  end 
of  the  shaving  slides  up  the  surface  of  the 
iron,  the  split,  once  commenced,  may  run 
some  distance  into  the  wood.  In  this  case, 
the  strong  splinter  torn  up  may  stop  the 
plane,  or,  breaking  off,  may  leave  a  rough 
surface.  To  prevent  this  a  second  iron  or 
"cap"  is  introduced,  thus  making  the  plane 
with  double  iron.  The  cap  is  secured  to 


60  Manual    Training. 

the    cutting    iron    by    a    screw  as    in    Fig.  24, 
and  the  two  are  put   together  into   the   block, 

and  held  in  place  by  a 
wedge,  as  you  will  readily 
understand  on  examining 
the  plane  on  your  bench. 
Figures  23  and  24  should 
be  carefully  compared  with 
your  plane,  by  way  of  fur- 
ther  illustration  of  the 
principles  of  mechanical 
drawing  explained  in  Les- 
son VI. 

With  this  instrument  it  is  impossible  for 
the  end  of  the  shaving  to  slide  far  up  the 
iron,  and  cause  a  deep  split  in  the  wood, 
because  the  shaving  is  caught  by  the  back 
iron  or  cap  and  bent  forward.  If  the  cap  is 
thick  enough,  and  set  near  enough  to  the 
edge  of  the  cutting-iron,  it  will  bend  the 
shaving  so  abruptly  as  to  break  it.  As  long 
as  the  shaving  was  a  strong  stick  or  splinter, 
as  at  a  ft,  Fig.  25,  the  forward  movement  of 
the  cutting-iron  tended  to  lift  this  stick  up 
without  breaking  it,  and  extend  the  split 


Wood  -  Working. 


61 


down  into  the  wood ;  but  when  the  end  of 
the  splinter  is  turned  up  and  broken  off,  as 
at  c  d,  the  cutting-iron  cuts  partly  through 
the  base  of  the  remaining  short  piece,  turning 


up  a  longer  splinter,  which  is  again  broken 
off,  and  so  on,  till  the  splinter  curls  up  as 
a  thin  "  shaving,"  as  at  e  /. 

When  you  examine    one    of  the   thin    shav- 


62  Manual    Training. 

ings  taken  off  by  such  a  plane,  you  find 
that  it  is  cracked  or  broken  across  at  equal 
short  distances.  Thus  it  is  so  much  weak- 
ened that  the  cutting-iron  cannot  lift  it  up 
by  the  end  and  continue  the  split  down  into 
the  wood. 

With  this  partial  view  of  the  mode  of  action 
of  the  plane  we  can  now  go  on  to  consider 
the  way  of  using  it.  The  discussion  of  the 
several  kinds  of  planes,  and  of  the  methods 
of  sharpening  them  and  of  adjusting  them 
for  different  kinds  of  work,  will  come  later. 

For  your  first  exercise  in  planing,  the  tool 
called  a  " jack-plane"  will  be  used.  It  is 
designed  for  coarse  work,  such  as  removing 
the  rough  outside  of  a  plank,  or  cutting  off 
considerable  quantities  of  material.  As  it  is 
intended  to  cut  pretty  thick  shavings,  the 
cap  is  set  well  back  from  the  edge  of 
the  cutting-iron  (I"  to  Ty),  the  cutting-iron 
is  allowed  to  project  considerably  from  the 
block,  and  its  edge  is  curved,  as  you  will 
notice,  so  that  the  middle  of  it  projects 
farther,  and  therefore  cuts  deeper  than  the 
corners.  Your  jack-plane  has  been  already 


Wood -Working.  63 


sharpened  and  adjusted  for  the  kind  of  work 
you  are  going  to  do.  It  is  intended  to  plane 
up  the  sides  of  your  box  ;  but  it  will  be  well, 
before  undertaking  this,  to  try  your  hand  on 
another  piece  of  wood  of  about  the  same  size. 
To  make  the  exercise  as  simple  as  possible, 
pick  out  a  piece  which  is  not  winding. 

You  find  at  the  left  end  of  your  bench  a 
stop  or  "  bench-hook,"  to  prevent  the  piece 
that  you  are  planing  from  sliding  forward. 
Examine  the  construction  of  this  bench-hook. 
Observe  how  it  is  raised  and  lowered,  and 
fastened  in  any  desired  position.  Set  it  so 
that  it  shall  stand  up  above  your  bench  a 
little  less  than  the  thickness  of  the  piece 
that  you  are  going  to  plane.  If  your  bench 
has  a  wooden  "  bench-pin "  instead  of  the 
bench-hook  the  mode  of  adjusting  this  is 
obvious.  Lay  your  piece  of  wood  on  the 
bench,  with  the  end  against  the  bench-hook. 
Hold  the  plane  by  the  handle  with  the 
right  hand.  Take  hold  of  the  front  of  the 
plane  with  the  left  hand,  the  thumb  being 
on  the  side  nearest  your  body,  and  the 
fingers  on  the  other  side.  This  throws  the 


64  Manual    Training. 

left  elbow  up,  and  enables  you  to  press  down 
on  the  front  of  the  plane.  It  is  not,  however, 
generally  necessary  to  press  down  very  hard  : 
if  the  plane  is  sharp  and  properly  adjusted 
EXERCISE  15.  it  will  take  hold  without  this, 


Use   of  the      Just     as     tne     Saw 

Jack-plane,  position,  push  the  plane  forward 
from  end  to  end  of  the  piece,  trying  to  take 
off  a  shaving  the  whole  length.  If  the  first 
shaving  is  taken  from  the  left-hand  edge,  let 
the  next  be  just  to  the  right  of  this,  and  so 
on,  till  you  have  gone  over  the  entire  breadth 
of  the  piece,  not  missing  any  portion  of  the 
surface.  You  will  of  course  have  to  change 
the  position  of  the  piece  from  time  to  time, 
so  that  the  portion  on  which  the  plane  is 
working  shall  be  opposite  the  bench-hook. 

In  the  management  of  the  jack-plane  the 
chief  points  to  be  attended  to  are  these: 

1.  During  the  first  part  of  the   stroke  press 
down    most    with    the    left    hand,  to    prevent 
the    rear    end    of    the    plane    from    dropping, 
and  so  cutting  off  too  much  of  the  rear  end 
of  the  piece. 

2.  In  the  same  manner,  bear   down,   during 


Wood  -  Working.  65 


the  last  part  of  the  stroke,  on  the  handle  of 
the  plane,  to  prevent  the  front  from  falling. 
If  these  two  points  be  neglected,  the  piece 
will  present,  when  planed,  the  appearance 


f 


Fig.  26. 

shown  in    Fig.  2G :   a  straight-edge   laid    upon 
the  surface  will  not  touch  at  the  ends. 

3.  Do  not  continue  to  plane  any   particular 
spot  merely  because  it  happens  to  wrork  easily: 
you  will  thus  get   the  surface  uneven,  and  be 
obliged,   after    all,  to    plane  away   the    rest    of 
the  piece  to  the  same  level  with  the  soft  part 
on  which  you  have  been  working. 

4.  Do  not,  as  a  general  rule,  work  "  against 
the    grain,"    that    is,    in    such    a'  direction    as 
from    a    to  g,  Fig.    25,    or    from  c  to  f  in    the 
same  figure.     When  you  work  thus,  each  fiber 
is    torn    some     little    distance    down    into    the 
wood  before   it  is  cut  off,  and    the  result   is  a 
number    of  small    shallow  pits,  deeper  at  one 
end    than    at    the    other,    leaving    the    surface 
rough,  as  in  Fig.  27,  in  which  the  appearance 


66  Manual    Training. 

is  exaggerated,  to  show  the  character  of  the 
effect.  Planing  with  the  grain,  the  tool,  as  it 
cuts  off  each  fiber  and  bends  it  up,  makes  a 
split  which  runs  outward,  across  the  shaving, 
instead  of  inward  into  the  piece,  and  thus 


leaves  the  surface  smooth.  As  the  grain  often 
runs  differently  in  different  parts  of  the 
piece  (as  it  does,  for  example,  in  Fig.  25)  it 
will  be  necessary,  in  such  cases,  to  turn 
the  piece  from  time  to  time,  as  you  work 
on  different  parts.  While  it  is  not  best 
in  general  to  work  against  the  grain,  it  is 
often  allowable,  and  even  preferable,  to  do 
so  when  a  considerable  thickness  of  wood  is 
to  be  removed,  as  the  plane,  if  not  set  too 
coarse,  works  freer  and  more  rapidly  against 
the  grain  than  with  it.  In  this  case  also, 
however,  it  will  be  necessary,  when  nearly  the 
desired  amount  of  wood  has  been  taken  off, 
to  turn  the  piece,  and  finish  with  the  grain. 
5.  Work,  whenever  you  can,  with  the 


Wood  -  Working.  67 


plane  as  with  other  tools,  with  long,  steady 
strokes.  When  you  are  obliged  to  turn  the 
piece  frequently,  because  of  the  crookedness 
of  the  grain,  this  is  of  course  impracticable. 

Bearing  these  points  in  mind,  and  having 
first  practiced  on  the  extra  piece  of  wood, 
you  may  now  plane  up  one  surface  of  each 
of  your  pieces  with  the  jack-plane,  provided 
the  surface  is  not  winding :  if  any  surface  is 
winding  we  will  reserve  its  treatment  for 
another  exercise.  When  you  have  done  this, 
you  will  find  that  the  marks  made  by  the 
saw  ("  saw-kerfs "  they  are  called),  as  well  as 
any  stains  or  rough  spots,  have  been  removed; 
but  the  general  surface,  though  clean,  is  now 
marked  with  a  series  of  broad  and  shallow 
furrows  or  valleys  separated  by  low  ridges 
which  are  due  to  the  curved  form  of  the 
iron,  and  which  will  appear  very  conspicuous 
if  you  lay  a  straight-edge  crosswise  on  your 
piece. "  In  our  next  lesson  we  will  endeavor 
to  remove  these  furrows  and  make  the  sur- 
face smooth. 


XII. 

The    Smoothing-Plane. 

TO  cut   the  ridges    left    by  the    jack-plane 
down   to  the  level  of  the  valleys  is   the 
next     operation.         It     may     be     performed, 
imperfectly,     with     the    jack-plane.       To     do 
this    the    cutting-iron    must    be    drawn    back 
so    that   it    shall    not  project   so    far  through 
the    block,    and    as    this    adjustment    is    fre- 
quently needed  for    the    purpose  of   adapting 
the  jack-plane,  or  any  other  plane,  to  hard  or 
crooked-grained  wood,   it  may  be  learned  and 
EXERCISE  16     practiced  here.     If  you  strike  the 
upper  surface    of  the  plane   near 

Adjustment 

of  cutting-  the  front,  two  or  three  moderately 
'  hard  blows  with  the  hammer, 
the  wedge  will  be  loosened  and  the  iron 
will  move  up  out  of  the  block.  You  must 
be  careful  not  to  strike  too  hard,  or  you 
will,  in  the  first  place  bruise  the  plane-block, 
and  in  the  second  place  loosen  the  wedge 


Wood  -  Working.  69 


and  iron  too  much.  By  turning  the  plane 
up  and  looking  down  the  "  sole "  from  front 
to  rear  you  can  see  hoAV  much  the  iron 
projects,  and  judge  whether  you  have  it  right. 
If  you  get  it  back  too  far,  you  can  drive  it 
forward  again  to  the  right  amount  by  gentle 
blows  of  the  hammer  on  its  upper  edge. 
When  you  have  it  just  right,  you  must  drive 
the  wedge  tight  again. 

For    the    purpose    for   which    you    are    now 
going  to  use  the  plane  the  iron  should  project 
very   little,   and    the   cap    should    EXERCISE  IT. 
come    very    close   to   the  edge   of 

Smoothing 

the  iron.  As  the  edge  of  the  with  jack- 
iron  is  curved,  it  will  not  be  plane, 
possible  to  make  the  surface  of  the  wood 
plane :  you  can  only  replace  the  deep  valleys 
by  shallower  ones,,  and  to  make  them  as 
shallow  as  possible  the  iron  must  project  as 
little  as  possible.  With  this  precaution,  go 
over  again  the  sides  that  you  have  already 
planed  and  make  them  as  smooth  as  you 
can,  remembering  the  warning  concerning  plan- 
ing against  the  grain.  The  operation  you 
have  just  performed  can  be  better  done,  par- 

MJNI VEHSIT  Y) 
V^  cM  ,?FoRNiA. 


70 


Manual    Training. 


ticularly  on  large  surfaces,  with  another  plane, 
called  the  fore-plane.  This  is  longer  and 
heavier  than  the  jack-plane,  and  has  an  iron 
which,  as  shown  in  Fig.  28,  6,  is  broader 
than  that  of  the  jack-plane,  Fig.  28,  <x,  and 
has  an  edge  which  is  straight,  except  just  at 

the  corner.  It  is  easy 
to  see  that  this  plane, 
if  properly  used,  is 
capable  of  making  a 
large  surface  even,  or 
"plane."  It  is  managed 
in  the  same  way  as 
the  jack-plane,  only 
requiring  a  little  more 
care  to  prevent  either 
end  from  dropping  at 
beginning  or  end  of 
the  stroke.  It  will 
not  be  necessary  to 
use  this  tool  on  the  small  pieces  of  this 
exercise,  but  we  will  finish  up  these  pieces 
with  the  smoothing-plane.  This  plane  is 
usually  employed  after  the  fore-plane.  It 
is  short  and  light,  and  specially  adapted  for 


**••— 

( 

*» 
•—  • 

~—^1 

) 

d 

•mf 

) 

\—) 

cc 

7%.  Zt 

LJ 

b 

Wood  -  Working.  71 

making  short  and  quick  strokes.     It  is  there- 
fore exactly  fitted  for  following  the  fore-plane 
(or    the    jack-plane    when    used    as    in    this 
exercise)     to    remove    the    small    pits    which 
result  from  the  former  plane's  having  worked, 
in  some   places,  against   the  grain.     Observing 
the  same  precautions  as  with  the    EXERCISE  is. 
jack-plane,      and     in      particular    use~oTthe 
reversing   the    direction    of    your     smoothing- 
work    as    often    as    the    grain    of        Plane- 
the    wood    requires    it,    go    over    your    pieces 
with   the   smoothing-plane   till  the  ridges  left 
by  the  jack-plane   are  all    cut  down,  and   the 
first    surface    of    each    piece     is     made     quite 
straight    and    smooth.      Test     this    with    the 
straight-edge. 

We    supposed,  a   little  while    ago,  that    the 
surface  of    one  of  your    pieces'    was    winding. 
If  it  was  not  so,  it  is  very  likely  that  one  of 
the  surfaces  may  have  become  so    EXERCISE  19. 
during   the   operation   of  planing 


it.      Test    these   pieces   and    pick      winding. 
out   any   that    are   winding,    or  make   one    so 
by    planing     off    a    little     from    one    corner. 
Suppose  A  B  G  D,  Fig.  29,  to  be  the  piece,  and 


72  Manual    Training. 

suppose   that,  when  you  hold  it    up,  with  the 

edge  D  C  towards  you,  so  that  the  end  C  just 

hides    B,   the  end   A    stands    above   D.     This 

*  TJ     indicates 

that  some- 
thing    has 

to  be  taken 

I>  Fio.29,  C      ^     f 


either  A  or  C.  Place  a  bit  of  shaving  under 
the  corner  A  to  support  it.  Then,  applying 
the  jack-plane  near  D  (7,  take  first  a  short 
stroke  at  C,  then  a  little  longer  one,  and  so 
on,  ending  with  a  stroke  nearly  but  not  quite 
the  whole  length  of  C  D.  The  portion  of  the 
board  near  C  is  now  lower,  and  when  tested 
as  before  the  piece  will  be  less  winding.  If 
you  have  taken  off  too  much,  the  winding 
will  even  be  reversed,  and  C  and  A  will 
appear  too  low  instead  of  too  high.  You 
must  avoid  this  result  by  testing  the  piece 
frequently  while  working,  otherwise  you  will 
get  first  one  winding  and  then  the  other, 
and  will  plane  your  piece  too  thin  before 
you  get  it  true.  Having  at  length  made  one 
surface  of  each  of  your  pieces  quite  free  from 


I  Vood  -  Working.  73 


winding  and  perfectly  straight  and  smooth, 
mark  this  with  your  pencil  as  the  standard 
surface  from  which  all  the  others  are  to  be 
formed. 

Having  now  finished  the  first  faces  of 
all  your  pieces,  these  pieces  must  be  reduced 
to  the  proper  thickness,  and  the  second 
surfaces  must  be  made  parallel  to  the  first, 
and  smooth.  The  proper  thickness  is  first  to 
be  marked  round  the  edge  of  each  piece 
with  the  gauge.  If  you  have  not  wasted 
material  in  making  the  first  surface  true, 
you  ought  to  be  able  to  finish  up  the  pieces 
of  your  last  exercise  to  a  thickness  of  half 
an  inch. 

Loosen  the  screw  of  your  gauge,  and,  hold- 
ing your  rule  in  the  left  hand,  set  the  gauge 
bv  it  to  half  an  inch,  and 

EXERCISE    20. 

tighten     the     screw     moderately. 
Try,  with  the    rule,    whether  the       Gausins- 
gauge  is    set    exactly    right.     If  not,    move    it 
the   necessary    amount    by    striking    one    end 
or   the    other    of   the  handle   a   few  times  on 
the   bench,    and    when     it     is     exactly     right 
fasten   the    head    in    position    with   the   screw, 


74  Manual    Training. 

but   not    so    tightly    as   to    bruise   the    handle 
with   the   point  of  the  screw. 

To  mark  a  piece,  hold  it  in  the  left  hand 
with  the  edge  up  and  resting  on  the  bench, 
the  finished  side  towards  the  right.  Place  the 
head  of  the  gauge  against  the  finished 
side,  and  push  it  from  you  along  the  edge  of 
the  piece  from  end  to  end,  not  with  a  series 
of  short  jerks,  but  with  one  long,  steady 
stroke.  The  point,  resting  lightly  on  the  edge 
of  the  piece,  will  make  a  straight  mark 
parallel  to  the  face  of  the  piece.  The 
commonest  fault  in  the  use  of  the  gauge  is  to 
bear  too  heavily  on  the  marking-point,  caus- 
ing it  to  sink  too  deeply  into  the  wood.  It 
then  moves  along,  not  smoothly,  but  with  a 
series  of  jumps,  marking  deeply  in  some 
places  and  in  others  not  at  all,  and  sometimes 
following  the  grain  of  the  wood,  and  thus 
making  a  crooked  mark,  instead  of  being 
directed  by  the  face  of  the  piece  and  making 
a  straight  mark.  To  avoid  this  fault  proceed 
as  follows :  When  you  set  the  head  of  the 
gauge  against  the  side  of  the  board,  if  you 
hold  it  so  that  the  marking-point  shall  stand 


Wood  -  Working.  75 


perpendicular  to  the  edge  of  the  board,  as  in 
Fig.  30,  a,  it  can  penetrate  the  wood  to  its 
full  length.  If  you  incline  the  top  of  the 
marking-point  forward,  as  in  Fig.  30,  6,  the 
corner  of  the 
handle  will  bear 
upon  the  board  <r— 
and  lift  the  point  ( 

up     so     that    it      ( 

will  penetrate  to 
a  less  depth  or 
not  at  all.  Now, 
hold  it  at  first 
so  that  the  point  \ 
shall  only  just  ; 

touch,     and     in 

.    . 
this     position 

make  a  very  light  mark  the  whole  length 
of  the  piece.  Then  returning  to  the  begin- 
ning, hold  the  gauge  so  that  the  point  may 
penetrate  a  little  deeper,  and  again  mark  the 
whole  length  of  the  piece,  and  so  on  until  a 
sufficiently  plain  mark  has  been  made.  It  is 
seldom  necessary  to  make  a  deep  mark.  All 
that  is  required  is  a  mark  that  can  be 


\ 


76  Manual    Training. 

readily  seen,  and  the    lightest  mark   that  will 
serve   this   purpose  is  best. 

Mark    in    this   way    the    four    edges    of  all 

your  pieces.     Then,  with  the  jack-plane,  plane 

them    down  just     to  the    marks,    being    very 

EXERCISE  21.    careful    not    to  go   even    a   little 


Planing  to  ^°°  ^ar-  ^  you  g°  beyond  the 
thickness,  mark  the  piece  is  spoiled. 
Finish  up  with  the  smoothing-plane.  If  the 
work  has  been  well  done,  each  of  the  faces 
should  be  perfectly  plane,  free  from  winding, 
and  quite  smooth,  and  the  pieces  should  be 
everywhere  exactly  half  an  inch  thick. 

After    planing    the    sides    of    your    pieces, 

plane  one  edge,  holding  the  piece  in  the  vise, 

EXERCISE  22.  an(^    being    very    careful    not     to 


cut   off  too   much   at  either  end, 

Squaring  the 

edge  of  a  and  not  to  let  the  plane  tip  over 
board.  either  to  the  right  or  the  left. 
Test  for  the  first  fault  with  the  corner  of  the 
jack-plane  used  as  a  straight-edge,  and  for 
the  second  with  the  try-square.  In  applying 
the  square  always  apply  it  to  the  side  first 
finished  and  marked.  One  edge  being  finished 
straight  and  square,  set  the  gauge  to  5| 


Wood  -  Working.  77 


inches,  and  mark  the  pieces  to  this  width 
from  the  finished  edge.  When  the  gauge  is 
set  so  wide  as  this,  it  is  even  more  necessary 
than  before  to  bear  lightly  on  it.  It  is  more 
difficult  to  control  the  gauge  EXERCISE  23. 
when  so  wide  open,  and  if  the 

Gauging  and 

point  enters  too  deep  it  will  jump     planing  to 
and  make  a  crooked  mark.     Hav-        width. 
ing  marked  all  the  pieces  to  the  proper  width, 
plane    the   second    edges   down    to   the    mark, 
but  not  beyond  it. 


LESSON  XIII. 

Back-saw  and  Bench-dog. 

THE  pieces  you  have  been  working  on  are 
now  of  the  uniform  thickness  of  half  an 
inch  and  of  the  breadth  of  5|  inches.  They 
are  still  marred,  however,  by  the  nail-holes 
made  in  them  in  a  former  exercise.  They  are 
now  to  be  cut  off  square,  a  little  shorter  than 
before,  and  smoother  at  the  ends  than  we 
were  able  to  make  them  with  the  ordinary 
cross-cut-saw.  For  this  work  we  will  use  the 
" back-saw"  or  " tenon-saw."  This  saw  is 
shorter  and  thinner  than  the  one  you  have 
used  before,  and  has  more  teeth  to  the  inch. 
Its  teeth  also  are  not  bent  sideways  or  "  set " 
as  much  as  those  of  the  cross-cut-saw.  Ex- 
amine the  two  saws  carefully,  and  compare 
them  in  these  particulars.  The  back-saw 
being  thinner  than  other  saws  is  more  likely 
to  bend.  To  prevent  bending  it  is  provided 
with  a  stiff  back,  which  gives  it  its  name. 

78 


Wood  -  Working.  79 


While  this  allows  the  saw  to  be  made  thinner, 
and  therefore  fits  it  for  finer  work,  it  limits, 
of  course,  the  depth  of  the  cut  that  can  be 
made  with  it.  A  back-saw  still  smaller, 
thinner,  and  finer  than  the  tenon-saw  that 
you  have,  and  with  no  set  to  its  teeth,  is 
called  a  "  dove-tail  "  saw. 

In  working  with  small  back-saws,  it  is 
generally  the  case  that  a  number  of  pieces 
are  to  be  cut  in  quick  succession.  Too  much 
time  would  be  wasted  if  these  were  all  to  be 
fastened  in  the  vise  before  cutting  them,  and 
besides,  the  firm  grip  of  the  vise  is  not  neces- 
sary. Small  pieces  are  most  conveniently  cut 
on  the  "  bench-dog "  which  you  find  on  your 
bench,  and  which  is  shown,  in  elevation  and 
plan,  in  Fig.  31.  Lay  the  dog  on  your  bench, 
one  of  the  cross-strips  being  downward  and  rest- 
ing against  the  front  of  the  bench.  Laying  the 
piece  that  is  to  be  cross-cut  on  the  dog  and 
resting  against  the  other  cross-strip,  with  the 
end  that  is  to  be  cut  off  projecting  a  little 
beyond  the  right-hand  edge  of  the  dog,  you 
can  easily  hold  it  with  the  left  hand,  and 
cut  off  the  piece  required.  In  the  case  of 


80 


Manual    Training. 


the  pieces  you  have  been  using  we  will  cut 
off  enough  to  remove  the  nail-holes.  Half  an 
inch  at  each  end  of  the  long  pieces  will  suffice 
for  this.  This  will  reduce  the  long  pieces  to 


//'I'. 


Fly.  31. 

11  \  inches,  and,  to  keep  nearly  the  same 
proportion  of  length  to  breadth  as  before, 
we  will  take  off  f  of  an  inch  from  each  end 
of  the  short  pieces,  reducing  them  to  7{ 
inches. 


Wood  -  Working.  8 1 


Having  made  the  necessary  pencil-marks 
with  the  square,  as  in  Lesson  VIII.,  remember- 
ing all  the  cautions  there  given  as  to  working 
with  your  square  always  from  the  same  edge 
and  side,  allowing  for  the  waste  of  the  saw, 
and  so  on,  you  will  proceed  to  cut  off  the 
narrow  pieces  from  the  ends,  making  first  a 
few  trial  cuts  on  another  piece,  to  get  the 
necessary  steadiness  of  hand.  In  cutting  with 
the  back-saw,  hold  the  saw  with  EXERCISE  24. 
its  edge  nearly  parallel  to  the  cross-cutting 
surface  of  the  piece,  but  let  the  with  back-saw, 
tip  of  the  saw  drop  a  little  at  first,  so  as  to 
begin  the  cut  at  the  farther  edge  of  the  board. 
Remember  the  injunctions  to  cut  slowly  at 
first,  to  keep  the  saw  upright,  not  to  force  it, 
and  to  cut  gently  when  the  saw  is  nearly 
through.  If  you  have  carried  the  pencil- 
marks  all  round  the  pieces,  there  will  always 
be  one  of  the  marks  on  the  faces  and  one 
of  those  on  the  edges  in  view  to  guide  you. 

The  pieces  being  now,  if  your  work  has  been 
well  done,  exactly  alike  in  pairs,  are  ready 
to  be  formed  into  a  box  of  much  better  finish 
than  the  one  first  made  with  nails.  We  will 


82  Manual    Training. 

put  it  together  with  "  dove-tail "  joints ;  but 
before  this  can  be  done  it  will  be  necessary 
to  acquire  some  skill  in  the  use  of  the  chisel. 
Two  other  pieces  may  be  cut  out  and  planed 
up  for  the  top  and  bottom.  You  may  deter- 
mine the  proper  size  for  these,  and  lay  them 
out  and  get  them  ready  yourself. 

In  cutting  out  these  pieces  you  will  have 
to  saw  lengthwise  of  the  grain,  and  will  use 
the  "rip-saw"  for  this  purpose.  You  will 
observe  that  this  has  larger  teeth  than  the 
cross-cut -saw,  that  the  front  faces  of  the  teeth 
are  square  instead  of  having  sharp  edges,  and 
that  the  angle  of  the  tooth  is  smaller.  On 

considering  a  little  you 

I  will    see    that    these 

\A/\A/\/VV         differences   are    in    ac- 

CL 

cordance  with  what  we 
have  learned  about  the 

^  different     strength     of 

VVVVVVVv       Wood    in    different  di- 

J^-ig.SZ.  rections.      The     lower 

edge    of  the   tooth    of 

the  rip-saw,  at  a,  Fig.  32,  has  to  cut  across 
the  fibers,  and  must  therefore  be  sharp.  The 


Wood  -  Working.  83 


front  a  b  has  only  to  push  the  pieces  out, 
and  is  therefore  blunt.  In  the  case  of  the 
cross-cut  saw,  it  is  the  front  edge  c  d  that 
cuts  across  the  grain,  and  is  therefore  filed 
sharp,  and  the  pieces  are  pushed  out  by  the 
point  c.  Furthermore,  as  the  edge  c  d  is  to 
cut  the  fibers,  it  will  work  best  when  it 
falls  on  them  not  quite  perpendicularly,  but 
obliquely,  which  is  the  reason  why  c  d  is  not 
perpendicular  to  the  edge  of  the  saw,  as  a  b  is. 


.  33. 


On  the  other  hand,  the  corner  a  of  the  tooth 
of  the  rip-saw,  being  a  sort  of  chisel,  works 
best  when  driven  obliquely  across  the  fibres. 
In  ripping  the  piece  D  E,  therefore,  Fig.  33, 
the  saw  should  be  held  as  shown,  rather  than 
perpendicular  to  the  length  of  the  board, 


84  Manual    Training. 

In  making  a  long  cut  Avith  the  rip-saw,  you 
will  sometimes  be  hindered  by  the  springing 
together  of  the  parts  that  are  already  cut, 
causing  them  to  "  pinch "  the  saw  and  resist 
its  motion.  The  remedy  for  this  is  to  insert 
a  wedge,  such  as  a  chisel,  a  screw-driver, 
or  a  piece  of  wood,  in  the  cut  near  the  saw. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  cut  care  must  be 
taken  that  this  wedge  does  not  split  the 
board. 

The  six  pieces  are  now  to  be  put  away 
while  the  use  of  the  chisel  is  being  learned, 
by  which  time  they  will  be  thoroughly  sea- 
soned. They  must  be  set  up  on  edge  with  a 
space  of  at  least  an  inch  between  them  for 
circulation  of  air,  so  that  they  may  not  warp. 
You  may  mark  on  each  piece  its  exact  dimen- 
sions, and  note,  when  you  take  it  up  again, 
how  much  it  has  shrunk  in  each  direction. 


LESSON    XIV. 

The    Chisel. 

OBSERVE  the  form  of  the  inch  chisel  on 
your  bench.  Its  back  is  perfectly  straight 
and  flat.  Its  face  makes  with  its  back  an 
angle  of  twenty-five  degrees,  and  just  at  the 
edge  is  a  short  face  which  makes  with  the 
back  a  somewhat  larger  angle,  namely,  35°. 
This  form  is  given  to  the  chisel  in  the  follow- 
ing way  :  First,  it  is  held  on  the  grindstone 
till  the  face  A  B,  Fig.  34,  is  formed,  making 
with  the 
back  the 
angle  25°. 
Then  the 


part    near      j)  __  ^  -  -  -  --  j—     — 

A  is  rubbed 


on  the  oil- 

stone, in  a  manner  which  will  be  explained 
presently,  making  the  narrow  face  A  D.  This 
face  is  exaggerated  in  the  figure,  to  make  it 

65 


86  Manual    Training. 

clear ;  it  should  be  less  than  half  as  wide  as  it 
is  there  shown.  If  you  examine  the  chisel  on 
your  bench,  which  is  in  good  condition,  you 
easily  detect  on  D  B  the  scratches  made  by  the 
grindstone,  while  A  D,  which  was  finished  on 
the  fine-grained  oil-stone,  is  smooth  and  bright, 
and  the  edge  at  A  is  very  keen.  This  is  the 
condition  in  which  the  chisel  and  all  similar 
cutting  tools  should  be  constantly  kept. 
When  the  tool  is  dull  you  cannot  do  fine 
work  with  it ;  and,  moreover,  in  trying  to 
force  it  you  are  very  apt  to  make  it  slip 
and  cut  yourself,  so  that  a  dull  tool  is  really 
more  dangerous  than  a  sharp  one. 

The  chisel  and  the  plane  have  the  same 
form  of  cutting  edge  and  require  the  same 
treatment.  Other  cutting  tools  resemble  these 
in  general,  but  differ  in  respect  to  the  size 
of  the  cutting  angle,  and  some  other  par- 
ticulars. It  will  be  readily  understood  that  if 
the  tool  is  to  be  used  on  hard  material,  it 
must  be  stronger,  to  prevent  its  breaking  or 
"  nicking  "  on  the  edge,  and  therefore  the  angle 
must  be  larger.  As  we  become  acquainted 
with  various  tools  for  cutting  wood  and  metals 


Wood  -  Working.  87 


we  shall  find  that  this  angle  has  very  differ- 
ent values,  reaching  even  to  90°  in  some 
lathe-tools  for  cutting  metals. 

There  are  several  different  ways  of  holding 
the  chisel,  according  to  the  kind  of  work  to 
be  done  and  the  force  required. 

1.  In  paring  off  thin  shavings  the  chisel  is 
intermediate,  as  to  the  quality  of  the  work  it 
can  do,  between  the  knife  and  the  plane.  We 
will  take,  for  an  exercise  of  this  kind,  a  piece 
of  pine  or  of  whitewood  with  a  rough  or 
crooked  edge,  which  we  will  make  straight 
and  smooth  as  in  Exercise  4,  but  with  the 
chisel  instead  of  the  knife.  We  will  cut  from 
a  li"  or  II"  plank  a  piece  9  inches  long, 
and  will  split  from  this,  with  the  hatchet, 
pieces  about  2"  wide.  We  will  select  for  the 
purpose  a  plant  which,  though  of  good  qual- 
ity, is  not  very  straight-grained,  so  as  to  give 
us  some  little  difficulty  in  dealing  with  the 
grain. 

Holding  one  of  these  pieces  in  the  vise, 
with  one  of  the  crooked  edges  upward,  take 
the  end  of  the  handle  of  the  chisel  in  the 
hollow  of  the  right  hand,  the  thumb  and  first 


88  Manual    Training. 

finger  lying  forward  on  the  handle,  and  the 
other  ringers  curved  under  and  grasping  it. 
EXERCISE  25.  Lay  the  back  of  the  chisel  (not 
Paring  with  tne  beveled  side)  flat  on  the  sur- 
chisei.  face  of  the  wood,  and  hold  it 
down  with  two  or  three  fingers  of  the  left  hand 
lying  on  the  blade,  a  little  way  back  from 
the  edge.  Pushing  the  chisel  forward  it  will 
now  cut  off  projecting  masses  very  much  as 
the  plane  does.  (If  the  edge  of  the  piece  is 
very  crooked,  so  that  much  wood  has  to  be 
removed,  as  in  Fig.  4,  p.  10,  it  may  be  scored 
and  split,  exactly,  as  in  the  exercise  with  the 
knife  or  the  hatchet.)  This  operation  of 
paring  is  very  simple  so  long  as  the  grain  is 
quite  straight,  or  even  when  it  is  moderately 
crooked,  provided  you  can  work  with  the 
grain :  it  is  only  necessary  to  push  the  chisel 
with  a  steady  movement  lengthwise  along  the 
piece,  and  the  back  of  the  chisel,  like  the  sole 
of  the  plane,  prevents  its  entering  too  deep. 
But  when  the  grain  is  very  irregular,  so  that 
as  the  tool  advances  you  find  it  working  now 
with  the  grain  and  now  against  it  in  quick 
succession,  it  will  be  found  best  to  work  with 


Wood  -  Working. 


89 


a  sliding  rather  than  a  pushing  movement, 
obliquely,  across  the  grain  rather  than  along 
it.  Thus,  if  the  grain  runs  as  shown  in  the 
elevation  A,  Fig.  35,  then,  in  paring  the  upper 


d 

\ 


Fig.  35. 

edge,  shown  in  plan  at  B,  if  the  chisel  moves 
from  right  to  left,  it  will  work  against  the 
grain  in  going  over  the  spaces  b  c,  d  e,  f  g,  etc., 
and  with  the  grain  over  the  spaces  a  b,  c  d, 
e  /,  etc.  It  will  be  found  best,  then,  as  it  is 
riot  practicable  to  reverse  the  direction  of  the 
work  so  often,  to  lay  the  chisel  on  the  work, 


.  3  6. 


not  as  shown  in  Fig.  36,  but  obliquely,  as  in 
Fig.  37,  and  in   moving  the   chisel,   not   only 


90  Manual    Training. 

to  push  it  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow  a,  but 
to  give  it,  at  the  same  time,  a  sliding  motion 
towards  the  right  or  left.  The  first  move- 
ment alone  would  make  the  chisel  come  out 

O    Q     -P 


at  0 ;  the  second  would  bring  it  out  at  P; 
the  two  movements  together  make  it  come  out 
at  Q.  This  sliding  movement  of  the  chisel, 
like  that  of  the  knife  already  spoken  of  (see 
p.  4)  is  very  important,  and  you  should  take 
pains  to  get  command  of  it.  With  it  wood 
can  be  pared  smooth  which  would  be  quite 
unmanageable  without  it.  The  reason  of  this 
can  now  be  easily  understood.  The  edge  of 
a  knife,  chisel,  or  plane,  however  keenly  it 
is  sharpened,  is  always  more  or  less  jagged 
like  a  saw.  On  some  tools  you  can  feel  the 
inequalities  or  teeth  with  the  finger,  and  even 


Wood  -  Working.  91 


when,  as  in  a  well-sharpened  razor,  you  can- 
not feel  them,  you  can  see  them  under  a 
microscope.  When  the  tool  has  the  sliding 
movement  that  has  been  described,  these  teeth 
catch  the  fibers  crosswise  and  cut  them  off, 
while,  if  it  is  pushed  straight  forward,  it  forces 
itself  between  the  fibers,  as  a  wedge,  and 
splits  them  apart  along  the  grain. 

Paying  attention  to  the  points  just  men- 
tioned, you  may  now,  drawing  a  straight 
line  on  your  piece  of  wood  about  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  back  from  the  edge,  pare  the 
edge  down  to  the  mark,  making  it  straight, 
square,  and  smooth.  Test  your  work  carefully 
with  respect  to  all  these  requirements,  and  do 
not  be  satisfied  till  you  have  produced  a 
really  good  result. 

When  you  have  worked  with  the  chisel  or 
other  cutting  tool  some  time,  it  becomes  dull, 
and  does  not  cut  well.  If  you  examine  its 
cutting  edge  you  will  find  that  instead  of 
being  quite  invisible,  as  it  was  at  first,  it  is 
visible  as  a  bright  shining  edge,  and  instead 
of  feeling  very  keen  to  the  end  of  the  finger, 
it  is  smooth  and  rounded.  Under  a  glass  it 


92  Manual    Training. 

would   appear  as  at  a,  Fig.  38,  rather  than  as 

at   b.      The    keen  edge    must    be    restored    by 

sharpening  on  the  oil-stone. 

EXERCISE  26.       A   plane-iron  and   a  chisel   are 

Sharpening     sharpened   in   the  same  way,  and 

a  chisel.       it   is    of  the    utmost    importance 

that  this  should    be    done    properly.     Having 

put  a  few   drops 

^f ~\     of    oil     on     the 

stone,  take  the 
chisel  in  the  right 
hand,  place  the 

^  ^ — j     beveled    face   on 

?<5>  the    stone    and 

press  it  down 
with  two  or  three  fingers  of  the  left  hand  held 
near  the  edge  of  the  blade.  At  first  place  the 
tool  on  the  stone  so  that  the  beveled  face 
touches  all  over,  Fig.  39,  a.  Then  raise  the 
right  hand  a  little,  so  that  only  the  small 
bevel  shall  touch,  as  at  b.  Be  careful  not  to 
raise  the  hand  too  high :  it  is  only  necessary 
to  just  miss  rubbing  the  large  bevel.  If  the 
hand  is  raised  too  high,  the  edge  will  be 
worn  away  too  much,  and  the  angle  of  the 


Wood  -  Working. 


93 


chisel  will  be  too  large.     Until   the  right  way 
of   holding    has    become    habitual,  it   may   be 


noted  that  the  height  of  the  end  of  the 
handle  above  the  surface  of  the  stone  should 
be  about  six-tenths  of  the  length  of  the  tool 
and  handle.  Thus,  if  the  entire  length  of 
the  chisel  is  10  inches,  the  middle  of  the 
circular  end  of  the  handle  should  be  6  inches 
above  the  stone.  In  rubbing  the  tool  on 
the  stone,  the  hand  must  be  pushed  to  and 
fro  parallel  to  the  stone,  not  rising  and  falling 
a  little,  which  would  make  the  edge  of  the 
tool  round. 

If   the    chisel    has    not    been    neglected    too 
long  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  rub  it  much 


94  Manual    Training. 

It  is  only  necessary  to  remove  the  roundness 
just  described.  When  this  is  done,  the  metal 
will  begin  to  turn  up  a  little  on  the  back, 
making  a  roughness  called  a  "wire-edge,"  as 
shown,  exaggerated,  in  Fig.  40.  This  wire- 
edge  is  removed  by  laying  the  flat  side  on 

the  stone  and 
the  tool 


.  4-0.  a  few  light 

strokes.  It 

must  not  be  at  all  tipped  up  during  this 
operation,  nor  the  operation  continued  long, 
or  the  back  will  be  rounded  and  the  tool 
spoiled.  The  operations  being  repeated  once 
or  twice,  more  and  more  lightly,  a  fine  keen 
edge  will  appear. 

In  using  any  cutting  tool,  it  will  be  found 
much  the  best  plan  to  sharpen  it  frequently. 
If  this  is  done,  it  will  require  only  a  slight 
rubbing  each  time,  and  the  best  quality  of 
work  can  be  done  with  a  tool  thus  kept  in 
order. 

When  the  tool  has  been  sharpened  very 
often  the  short  bevel  near  the  edge  be- 
comes wide,  and  much  work  is  then 


Wood  -  Working.  95 


required  to  sharpen  it  on  the  oil-stone.  It 
must  then  be  ground  on  the  grind-stone. 
The  long  bevel,  which  makes  the  smaller 
angle  with  the  back  (D  B,  Fig.  34)  is  to  be 
held  on  the  stone,  until  it  is  ground  away  so 
far  that  it  runs  quite  out  to  the  edge  at  A. 
In  doing  this  take  care. 

1.  To   hold   the   tool   steady   at   the   proper 
inclination. 

2.  To   keep   plenty   of  water   on   the   stone, 
so    as    not    to    heat    the    tool.     Heat    would 
soften  and  spoil  it. 

3.  To   turn    the   stone    towards    the   chisel, 
particularly    near   the    end     of    the   grinding. 
Turning   it   from    the    chisel    will    turn    up    a 
"  wire-edge,"  as  in  Fig.  40. 

4.  Never   to   let   the  stone   touch    the   back 
of  the  tool. 

When  the  bevel  A  B,  Fig.  34,  has  been 
carried  out  to  the  edge,  which  will  make  the 
latter  rough,  a  moderate  rubbing  on  the  oil- 
stone will  give  it  a  smooth,  keen  edge. 

Having  now  pared  one  edge  of  your 
piece  of  wood  straight  and  smooth,  each  of 
you  may  exchange  pieces  with  his  next 


96  Manual    Training. 

neighbor,  and  repeat  the  operation  on  the 
opposite  edge.  This  exchange  is  made  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  you  an  opportunity 
to  examine  and  become  acquainted  with 
the  two  kinds  of  wood  that  have  been 
distributed  through  the  class.  The  pine  is 
of  the  kind  called  white-pine.  It  is  soft 
and  straight-grained,  and  planes  to  a  smooth, 
glossy  surface  if  the  piece  is  a  good  one. 
The  tree  is  a  fine  evergreen  which  grows 
to  a  height  of  one  hundred  to  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  in  the  woods  of  the 
Northern  States  and  Canada,  and  sometimes 
has  a  trunk  six  feet  in  diameter.  Its  leaves 
are  long  slender  needles  (Fig.  41),  growing 


in  groups  of  five,  each  group  making,  if 
the  several  parts  are  pressed  together,  a  com- 
plete cylinder.  You  can  find  small  speci- 
mens of  the  tree  in  woods  and  parks 


Wood  -  Working.  97 

almost  everywhere,  but  the  large  ones  are 
to  be  seen  only  in  the  wild  Northern 
woods,  and  even  there  are  getting  scarce. 
It  is  very  different  in  its  mode  of  growth, 
the  shape  and  grouping  of  its  leaves,  and 
the  character  of  its  wood  from  the  yellow- 
pine  and  the  pitch-pine,  and  you  ought  to 
endeavor,  as  opportunity  offers  in  the  work- 
shop and  elsewhere,  to  make  yourself  ac- 
quainted with  these  different  species  and 
their  uses.  The  white-wood  is  the  wood  of 
the  tulip-tree,  which  is  also  a  large,  hand- 
some tree,  with  fine  straight  trunk,  and 
with  curious,  square-cut  leaves,  as  in  Fig. 
42.  It  is  not  an  evergreen,  but  a  decidu- 
ous tree;  that  is,  it  loses  its  leaves  in  the 
fall.  It  bears,  in  June,  a  coarse,  tulip-shaped, 
yellow  flower,  from  which  it  is  named. 
Its  wood,  as  you  see,  is  not  white,  but 
greenish-yellow.  It  is  very  straight-grained, 
free  from  knots,  soft  and  easily  worked, 
and  is  much  used  in  house-carpentry,  and 
in  furniture  and  pattern-making. 


Manual    Training. 


XV. 

The    Chisel    Continued. 

WHEN  greater  force  has  to  be  applied  to 
the  chisel,  as  in  paring  across  the  grain, 
the  handle  is  held  in  the  closed  right 
hand,  the  end  of  it  standing  out  a  little  on 
the  upper  or  thumb  side,  and  the  flat  side  of 
the  chisel  being  turned  towards  the  body. 
Leaning  over  the  work  and  bringing  the 
shoulder  against  the  handle  of  the  chisel, 
the  tool  is  forced  downward  by  the  press- 
ure of  the  hand  and  the  shoulder  together. 
In  this  case,  also,  the  oblique  or  sliding 
movement  makes  the  tool  cut  easier. 

As  an  exercise  in  this  method   of  using  the 

chisel,   one  end  of   the  piece  used  in  the  last 

EXERCISE  27.   exercise  may  be  "  chamfered  "  or 

chairing     "beveled"     on     the    edge.      The 

end-wood,     work     must     be      first      marked 

out,   as    in    Fig.    43    which    shows    elevation, 

plan,   and   end   elevation    of  the   piece.       The 

99 


100  Manual    Training. 

line  F  E  is  to  be  drawn  lightly,  on  one  end, 
with  the  gauge,  in  the  middle  of  the  thick- 
ness of  the  piece  ;  G  D  is  to  be  drawn  on  one 
face,  with  lead-pencil  and  square,  at  the  same 


Fig 


distance  from  the  corner  that  E  F  is;  A  B 
may  be  ruled  with  the  lead-pencil  and  the 
edge  of  the  square.  The  line  A  B,  being  on 
the  top  of  the  piece,  is  visible  in  the  plan; 
C  D,  being  on  the  back,  is  dotted  on  the 
elevation,  and  for  a  like  reason,  E  is  dotted 
in  the  right-hand  end  elevation.  Holding  the 
piece  in  the  left-hand,  by  one  end,  rest  the 
edge,  at  the  other  end,  on  a  clean  piece  of 
W0od,  —  not  on  the  bench.  The  bench  may 
have  dust  on  it,  which  would  dull  the  chisel; 
and  besides,  chiseling  on  the  bench  destroys 
the  smooth  surface  that  it  ought  always  to 


Wood  -  Working.  101 


have.  The  piece  should  be  held  with  the  side 
that  is  to  be  beveled  turned  from  you; 
leaning  over,  you  will  then  have  a  good  view 
of  the  part  you  are  cutting.  Setting  the  edge 
of  the  chisel  near  the  corner,  as  at  a,  Fig.  44, 
press  it  down 

and  cut  off  a     **f '  ^ 

small  chip. 
Then  setting 
it  back  a  little,  as  at  6,  cut  off  another,  and 
so  on.  As  the  cuts  become  wider  it  will  be 
harder  to  drive  the  chisel  down,  and  you 
will  have  to  take  thinner  shavings.  Do  not 
forget,  particularly  when  making  the  last  cuts, 
that  it  will  work  easier  if,  while  pushing  the 
chisel  in  the  direction  D  C,  you  also  slide  it 
in  the  direction  B  A.  The  last  cut  should 
be  a  very  light  one,  and  made  very  carefully 
and  with  a  keen  chisel,  so  as  to  leave  the 
surface  quite  plane  and  smooth. 

After  chamfering  one  side  of  the  end  A, 
mark  and  chamfer  the  other  side  of  the 
same  end,  working  the  end  to  a  sharp  edge. 
Then  chamfer  the  other  two  edges  of  the 
same  end,  working  it  to  a  point.  As  the 


102  Manual    Training. 

quantity  of  wood  to  be  removed  in  this 
part  of  the  exercise  is  less,  the  chisel  will 
work  easier,  and  the  pressure  of  the  shoulder 
will  not  be  needed.  You  may  hold  the  piece 
in  your  vise,  the  end  that  is  to  be  beveled 
projecting  only  a  little  above  the  bench,  so 
as  to  be  firm,  and  the  chisel  being  managed 
as  in  Exercise  25.  Finally,  make  a  drawing 
in  plan,  elevation,  and  end  elevation  of  the 
finished  piece,  to  a  scale  of  ^. 

3.  In  the  exercise  just  finished,  the  cut  was 
made  obliquely  across  the  grain.  When  it  is 
made  square  across  it  is  more  difficult.  In 
this  case,  and  particularly  when  the  piece  to 
be  cut  off  is  so  situated  that  the  sliding  move- 
ment cannot  well  be  used,  a  mallet  is  used  to 
drive  the  chisel.  In  this  case  the  chisel  is 
held  in  the  left  hand,  nearly  or  quite  per- 
pendicular to  the  surface  of  the  wood,  and 
with  the  same  grip  as  in  the  last  exercise,  but 
not  bearing  against  the  shoulder.  The  ham- 
mer must  not  be  used  instead  of  the  mallet, 
as  this  will  deface  the  handle  of  the  chisel, 
and  after  a  while  split  it.  When  the  position 
of  the  cut  will  allow  it,  some  of  the  wood 


Wood  -  Working. 


103 


may  be  removed  by  the  brace  and  bit,  or 
a  portion  of  the  cut  may  be  made  with  the 
saw,  before  beginning  to  use 

EXERCISE    28. 

the    chisel.      The    next    exercise, 
a    "through-mortise,"    will     illus-     Mortisins- 
trate    the    first    plan,  and    the   following   exer- 
cise, an   "  end  dove-tail,"  the  second. 

Figure  45   is  a  working  sketch  of  one  form 
of  a  "  mortise  and  tenon"  joint.     A  and  B  are 


$       a. 


v         / 

1 


4.oms.  «£, 


elevation  and  plan  of  the  mortise  and  C  and 
D  of  the  tenon.  No  end  elevations  are 
needed. 

The    dimensions   are   given    in    centimeters, 


104  Manual    Training. 

that  is,  hundredths  of  a  meter,  that  the  eye 
may  become  accustomed  to  Metric  measures 
as  well  as  English  measures.  A  centimeter 
is  a  little  less  than  half  an  inch  (Oin.39), 
a  meter  being  a  little  more  than  a  yard 
(39  inches,  or  3.28  feet).  An  examination  of 
the  drawing  will  show  that,  when  the  two 
pieces  E  and  F  are  cut  out,  the  remaining 
piece,  or  "  tenon,"  will,  if  properly  cut,  fit 
closely  in  the  hole  or  mortise  Gr,  and  the 
pieces  will  be  firmly  joined  together  perpen- 
dicular to  each  other. 

To  make  this  joint,  the  pieces  must  first 
be  planed  up  exactly  square  and  to  the 
true  dimensions.  Sharpen  the  plane  if  neces- 
sary. First  plane  one  surface  of  each  piece 
true  and  mark  it  thus  x.  Next  plane  one 
adjacent  surface  on  each  piece  true,  and  per- 
pendicular to  the  first  surface,  testing  with 
the  square.  Next,  mark  the  pieces  to  the 
proper  breadth  and  thickness  with  the  gauge, 
measuring  from  these  finished  surfaces,  and 
plane  to  the  marks.  All  four  surfaces  of  each 
piece  should  now  be  of  the  proper  dimensions, 
and  the  pieces  square,  Set  the  smoothing- 


Wood  -  Working.  105 


plane  fine  and  finish  the  surfaces,  taking 
off  only  enough  wood  to  make  the  surfaces 
smooth. 

Now  mark  out  the  joint,  drawing  the 
lines  a,  6,  c,  d  with  the  gauge,  being  care- 
ful not  to  mark  them  too  deep  nor  to 
extend  them  too  far,  and  draw  the  other 
lines  with  the  square  and  a  sharp  lead-pen- 
cil. Both  sides  of  the  pieces  must  be 
marked,  and  also  the  end  of  the  tenon- 
piece,  C  D. 

To  cut  out  the  wood  from  the  mortise, 
first  use  the  brace,  with  a  center-bit  three 
or  four  millimeters  smaller  than  the  width 
of  the  mortise  (a  millimeter  is  a  tenth 
of  a  centimeter,  or  a  thousandth  of  a  meter, 
and  is  the  smallest  division  on  your  metric 
rule) . 

Notice    the    way    in    which     the    center-bit 
works.     The    revolving    knife-point    or    "  cut- 
ter "   first   makes   a   circular    cut,    EXERCISE  29. 
and    then    the    revolving    chisel,    Boring  with 
following    the    knife,    removes    a     center-bit, 
chip.      If    the    cutter    is    not    sharp     on    the 
front    edge    it    will    not    make    a    clean    cut, 


106  Manual    Twining. 

If  it  is  too  short,  the  chisel  will  cut  before 
the  cutter  has  prepared  the  way  for  it,  and 
will  tear  out  the  wood  beyond  the  intended 
circle.  Hence,  though  the  cutter  must  be 
sharpened  with  a  file  when  necessary,  the 
sharpening  must  be  done  only  on  the  inside 
edge,  and  very  carefully,  for  if  the  outside 
edge  is  filed  the  circle  cut  will  be  too  small, 
and  if  the  cutter  is  made  too  short  the  bit 
is  spoiled. 

With  the  center-bit  a  hole  is  to  be  bored 
through  the  piece  near  each  end  of  the 
mortise.  It  is  necessary  that  this  hole 
should  go  through  quite  squarely,  or  it 
will  cut  away  wood  which  ought  not  to  be 
cut.  A  few  experiments  may  be  made  first 
on  the  other  end  of  the  piece,  or  on  a 
piece  of  waste  wood.  Mark  a  point  near 


O QJ 


the     end,  as    at   P,   Fig.    46,   and     then     with 
the  gauge  and    square    find    the   point  exactly 


Wood  -  Working.  107 


t » 


pposite  J\  Hold  the  piece  in  the  vise, 
the  end  P  standing  up  above  the  bench. 
Place  the  handle  of  the  brace  against  the 
breast,  set  the  point  of  the  bit  on  P,  hold 
the  bit  perpendicular  to  the  surface,  and 
begin  to  bore  without  altering  the  position 
of  the  brace.  No  hard  pressure  on  the 
brace  will  be  needed,  if  the  wood  is  soft, 
as  pine  or  white-wood,  and  the  bit  in  order. 
When  you  have  bored  about  lcm,  stand 
aside,  holding  the  end  of  the  brace  in  the 
hand  without  altering  its  position,  and 
examine,  both  from  above  and  from  the 
side,  whether  it  is  perpendicular  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  block.  If  it  is  not,  make  it 
so  and  go  on.  Examine  again  once  or  twice 
before  boring  through.  As  soon  as  the 
point  of  the  bit  begins  to  show,  if  it 
comes  out  at  the  marked  point,  or  within 
one  or  two  millimeters,  you  have  bored 
pretty  well  and  may  venture  to  bore  the 
holes  for  the  mortise.  As  soon  as  the  point 
makes  its  appearance  reverse  the  block  and 
bore  from  the  other  side,  or  clamp  another 
piece  tightly  against  your  piece  in  the  vise, 


108  Manual    Training. 

and  bore  through  against  that.  Unless  you 
take  one  or  the  other  of  these  precautions 
the  bit  will  splinter  the  wood  when  it 
comes  through.  The  first  two  holes  having 
been  bored,  as  in  the  Figure,  a  series  of 
holes  may  be  made  between  them,  touching 
each  other,  and  removing  most  of  the  wood 
from  the  mortise. 

The  mortise  is  now  to  be  trimmed  to 
its  exact  size  and  shape  with  the  chisel. 
To  do  this,  lay  the  block  on  a  piece  of 
clean  wood  on  the  bench,  set  the  chisel 
(which  must  be  a  little  narrower  than  the 
mortise )  upright  on  it  about  \  inch  inside 
of  the  end  mark,  the  flat  side  towards  the 
mark,  and  drive  it  in  by  a  smart  stroke 
of  the  mallet.  Pare  away  the  wood  at  the 
sides  of  the  mortise  with  a  wide  chisel ; 
drive  the  narrow  chisel  in  again,  and  so  on 
till  the  mortise  is  cut  about  half-way 
through.  Then  turn  the  piece  over  and 
cut  in  the  same  way  from  the  other  side. 
A  little  wood  has  been  left,  which  is  now 
to  be  very  carefully  pared  off,  holding  the 
chisel  against  the  shoulder  as  explained  in 


Wood  -  Working.  .      109 


the  previous  lesson,  and  taking  especial  pains 
not  to  cnt  beyond  the  marks.  This  paring 
also  should  be  continued  half-way  through 
from  opposite  sides  in  succession.  The  four 
sides  of  the  mortise,  if  properly  finished, 
will  now  be  smooth,  perpendicular  to  the 
faces,  and  parallel,  in  pairs,  to  each  other. 

The  tenon  is  to  be  cut  with  the  "  back- 
saw."  This  is,  as  you  have  seen,  finer  than 
the  cross-cut-saw  heretofore  used,  and  if  skill- 
fully handled  will  leave  the  surfaces  smooth 
enough  without  the  use  of  the  chisel.  To  avoid 
the  risk,  however,  of  cutting  the  tenon  too 
small,  it  will  be  best,  until  you  have  acquired 
considerable  skill,  to  saw  not  quite  up  to  the 
marks,  leaving  a  very  small  amount  to  be  pared 
off  with  the  chisel.1 

If  the  mortise  and  tenon  have  been  properly 
cut,  they  will  now  fit  closely  together.  The 
tenon  must  not  go  in  too  tight.  If  it  does, 
particularly  sideways,  it  will  split  the  mortise- 
piece.  If  it  does  not  enter  when  driven  with 

1  Some  particulars  in  the  management  of  this  saw 
when  cutting  lengthwise  of  the  grain  are  given  in  the 
next  lesson  (page  115),  and  may  be  noticed  here. 


110  Manual    Training. 

gentle  blows  of  the  mallet,  it  must  be  with- 
drawn. The  bruises  on  the  surfaces  will  show 
where  it  fits  too  tight,  and  either  it  or  the  mor- 
tise must  be  pared  down  carefully  till  a  good 
fit  is  obtained. 


XVI. 


The   Chisel   Continued.  —  End    Dove -Tail. 

rTAHE  two  pieces  that  were  put  together 
X  in  your  last  lesson  can  be  pulled  apart 
in  one  direction.  The  piece  A,  Fig.  47,  can 
be  drawn  out  from  B  towards  the  right,  but 
the  part  of  B  which 
projects  above  A  in 
the  figure  prevents 
the  tenon  from  be- 
ing removed  by  a 
pull  upward,  or  in 
the  direction  of  the 
arrow.  If  we  wish- 
ed, however,  to  get 
rid  of  the  projecting  piece  above  the  tenon, 
so  as  to  have  a  smooth  corner,  we  should 
lose  this  advantage,  and  unless  the  tenon  were 
narrowed,  A  would  not  be  able  to  resist  either 
a  force  toward  the  right  or  an  upward  force, 
but  would  yield  in  either  direction.  If  we 

in 


112  Manual    Training. 

wish,  in  this  case,  to  have  A  held  fast  so  that 
there  shall  be  one  direction  in  which  it  can 
be  pulled  without  being  withdrawn,  we  must 
give  the  joint  another  shape.  This  shape  is 
called  the  "dove-tail,"  from  its  resemblance 
to  the  spreading  tail  of  a  dove,  Fig.  48.  It 

is  evident   that   if  the 

A     >     S      dove-tailed   piece  A  is 

T-,.     .0  fitted    into    a    hole    of 

^1^Cf»fro- 

the  same  shape,  it  can- 
not be  withdrawn  by  pulling  in  the  direction 
of  the  arrow.  With  this  explanation  you 
will  now  be  able  to  understand  the  sketches 
in  Fig.  49,  in  which  A  and  B  represent  the 
plan  and  elevation  of  the  mortise-piece,  C 
and  D  those  of  the  tenon-piece,  and  E  and 
F  those  of  the  two  pieces  put  together. 

The    two    pieces    are    to    be    first   carefully 

planed     true     and     smooth     as     in     the     last 

EXERCISE  so.    exercise.     The    work   is    then    to 

End  dove-tail,  be    laid    out.     The    thickness    of 

A  B  ( \\" )  is    to    be    marked    with    a    sharp 

pencil    on     C    D,    first     on     the    upper     side 

shown    at    0,  then,  by   means   of    the   square, 

on    the    front    side    D,  and    then,  from    these 


Wood  -  Working. 


113 


two  sides,  with  the  square,  on  the  other 
two  sides.  In  the  same  manner,  the  thick- 
ness of  C  D  is  to  be  marked,  first  on  the 
right-hand  face  of  A  B,  then  on  the  front 


D 


face  shown  at  B,  and  then  from  these  on 
the  other  two.  Next  the  two  inclined  lines 
marking  out  the  dove-tail  are  to  be  drawn 
on  the  upper  face  of  C,  then  on  the  lower 
face,  and  then  their  ends  are  to  be  joined 
by  lines  drawn  across  the  end  of  the 
piece.  Lastly,  similar  inclined  lines  are  to 
be  drawn  on  the  end  of  A,  and  from  their 
extremities  lines  are  to  be  drawn  down  the 
right  and  left  faces  of  A  B  to  the  cross- 


114  Manual    Gaining. 

mark.  Mark  with  a  cross  x,  as  in  Fig.  54, 
to  prevent  mistakes,  the  pieces  of  wood  that 
are  to  be  cut  away,  and  before  beginning  to 
cut,  put  the  pieces  together  and  make  sure 
that  your  marks  are  right.  The  lines  are  all 
to  be  drawn  with  a  very  sharp  pencil,  so 
that  if  you  cut  exactly  up  to  the  center 
of  each  line,  but  not  beyond,  the  dove-tail  or 
tenon  and  the  hollow  or  mortise  shall  fit 
perfectly  together. 

The  cutting  of  the  marked  portions  from 
the  tenon-piece  G  is  very  simple.  It  is  all 
done  with  the  back-saw,  and  if  the  tool  is 
handled  with  skill,  nothing  will  remain  for 
the  chisel.  To  do  this,  however,  would  re- 
quire more  skill  than  you  can  be  expected 
to  possess  as  yet,  and  you  may  therefore 
cut  not  quite  up  to  the  marks  with  the 
saw,  leaving  a  little  wood  to  be  trimmed 
off  with  the  chisel.  Be  very  careful,  when 
trimming  this  off,  to  have  your  chisel  as 
keen  as  possible,  and  to  use  the  sliding 
movement  already  described. 

In  removing  the  wood  from  the  mortise- 
piece  also,  the  first  part  of  the  work  is 


Wood  -  Working. 


115 


done  with  the  saw.  Hold  the  piece  up- 
right in  the  vise,  place  the  saw  just  within 
the  inclined  marks  on  the  end  of  A,  but 
very  near  them,  and  cut  down  to  the  cross- 
mark.  In  making  these  cuts  on  A,  as  well 
as  the  corresponding  cuts  on  C,  and  any 
others  which  ,go  lengthwise  of  the  grain,  be 
careful  not  to  hold  the  saw  quite  horizontally, 
or  with  the  tip  inclining  downward,  as  in 
cross-cutting,  but  with  the  handle  downward 
as  in  ripping,  as  in  Fig.  50.  Otherwise  the 


teeth  will  stick  too  firmly  in  the  wood, 
and  the  saw  will  jump,  or  "  chatter."  In 
making  cross-cuts,  as  the  two  short  cuts  in 
(7,  this  precaution  is  not  necessary. 


116 


Manual    Training. 


When  the  two  saw-cuts  in  the  mortise-piece 
have  been  made,  the  next  operation  is  to 
cut  out  the  piece  of  wood  between  them 
down  to  the  cross-mark.  Here,  as  in  the 
last  exercise,  the  work  of  cutting  with  the 
chisel  may  be  lessened  by  the  use  of  the 

brace  and  bit ; 
but  we  will, 
for  the  sake 
of  variety  in 
exercise,  use 
a  different 
method,  cut- 
ting the  mor- 
tise with  the 
chisel  alone. 
Lay  the  piece 


H 


on  the  bench, 

with  the  dove-tail  end  from  you  and  the  right 
side  (Fig.  49,  B]  up:  this  is  the  side  on  which 
the  two  cuts  come  nearest  together  (!-§-")• 
Set  the  edge  of  your  one-inch  chisel  at  the 
dotted  line,  Fig.  51,  about  |"  inside  of  G  H, 
the  flat  side  of  the  chisel  being  towards  you. 
Strike  a  smart  blow  with  the  mallet,  driving 


Wood  -  Working.  117 


the  chisel  in  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch.  Do 
not  strike  a  series  of  feeble,  uncertain  blows, 
but  one  vigorous  one.  You  may,  if  you  choose, 
after  placing  the  chisel,  give  it  one  gentle  tap 
to  make  sure  of  starting  it  right  (though  this 
is  not  necessary),  but  when  you  are  sure  that 
it  is  right,  strike  it  boldly.  Having  driven  the 
chisel  in  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  you 
have  now  compressed  the  wood  so  that  it  is 
difficult  to  penetrate  any  farther.  Set  the 
chisel  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  nearer  to 
the  end,  but  tipped  forward,  as  at  b  in  the 
Figure,  so  that  it  shall  work  towards  the  cut 
you  have  already  made.  It  will  thus  throw  out 
the  little  triangular  chip  shown  in  the  Figure. 
Set  the  chisel  upright  ag;ain  at  the  same 
point  as  at  first,  and  drive  it  in  farther. 
Move  it  nearer  to  the  end,  tipped  forward 
again,  and  cut  out  another  chip.  Advance 
thus,  till  you  have  got  half-way  through  the 
piece ;  then  turn  it  over  and  proceed  in  the 
same  way  from  the  other  side.  Be  careful 
not  to  let  the  chisel  go  through  and  strike 
the  bench.  If  you  cannot  check  it,  place  a 
piece  of  clean  board  under  your  work.  As 


1 1 8  Mannnl    Training. 

the  piece  to  be  cut  out  is  wider  on  the 
second  face  than  on  the  first,  you  must  in- 
cline your  chisel  right  and  left,  so  as  to  cut 
under  a  little  while  working  from  the  first 
face  and  to  avoid  cutting  into  the  sides  of 
the  mortise  when  working  from  the  second. 

When  the  piece  is  cut  out,  the  three  sides 
of  the  mortise  are  to  be  carefully  pared  so 
that  the  tenon  will  go  in,  fitting  closely,  but 
not  so  tightly  as  to  split  the  mortise-piece. 


XYTI. 

The    Chisel    Continued.  —  Dove-Tailing. 

WE  will  now  return  to  the  box  which  we 
left  unfinished  in  our  thirteenth  Lesson. 
We  had  got  out  the  required  material,  cut  it  to 
the  proper  shape,  and  put  it  away  to  dry 
thoroughly.  Examine  the  pieces  carefully  for 
shrinking,  warping,  and  winding,  and  if  neces- 
sary reduce  them  to  their  proper  shape  and 
dimensions.  If  they  have  shrunk  or  twisted 
much,  it  may  be  necessary  to  make  them 
somewhat  smaller  than  originally  proposed, 
say  Ty'x5^"x12£"  for  the  long  pieces,  and 
_7_."x5ii"x  73."  for  the  short  pieces;  but  it  is 
to  be  hoped  that  this  will  not  be  necessary. 

The  four  pieces  for  the  sides  are  now  to  be 
put  together  with  dove-tail  joints  as  in  Fig.  52, 
which  is  a  working  drawing  showing  five  dove- 
tailed tenons  on  each  end  of  the  long  pieces  A, 
which  fit  into  five  corresponding  mortises  in 
the  ends  of  the  short  pieces  B.  The  pieces 

119 


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» I 

D 


A 


•       i 

D 


i       • 

•  i 

•  i 


/ 


)^  [ 


B 


•tzyz*--   -1 -> 

i 

i 


J'cct/e    ^    or  6"=  /' 


IT 


p 

1          I 

«       • 


\£> 


*     i 

R 

a 


which  stand  out  between  the  mortises  in  B,  and 
which  might  themselves  be  regarded  as  tenons 
fitting  into  mortises  in  A,  are  called  "  pins." 
The  figures  C  and  D  show  end-views  of  the 
pieces  A  and  B  respectively.  The  interrupted 
lines  at  A  and  B  have  the  meaning  already  ex- 
plained on  page  2. 

These  drawings  should  be  carefully  studied 
till  they  are  thoroughly  understood.  If  they 
cannot  be  understood  otherwise,  you  may 

121 


122  Manual    Training. 

examine  a  finished  box  and  compare  them 
with  it.  After  this  the  work  is  to  be  laid 
out  in  the  following  way  : 

First,-  the  lines  u  b  are  to  be  drawn  with 
square  and  pencil  on  both  sides  of  A,  being 
careful,  as  before  explained  in  similar  cases,- 
to  work  from  one  edge  and  one  face  of  the 
piece.  Then  the  lines  c  d  are  to  be  drawn  on 
the  pieces  B.  Next  set  out  on  a  b  the  eleven 
distances,  of  which  those  numbered  1,  2,  3, 
4,  5  are  equal,  those  numbered  6,  7,  8,  9  are 
also  equal,  and  the  two  end  spaces  are  half 
as  long  as  6  and  7. 

When  these  spaces  have  been  laid  out 
exactly,  the  oblique '  lines  from  a  b  to  e  f  can 
be  drawn  with  the  "  bevel,"  provided  e  f  is 
quite  straight  and  square.  The  bevel  must  be 
first  set  to  the  proper  angle.  Take  a  smooth 
piece  of  board  five  or  six  inches  wide,  with 
one  straight  edge  and  one  smooth  face.  The 
piece  that  you  have  used  in  previous  exercises 
to  place  under  your  work  to  protect  your 
bench  will  do  very  well.  Near  one  end  draw 
a  fine  pencil-line  across  it  with  your  square. 
Measure  from  this  line  an  inch  along  the 


Wood  -  Working.  123 


edge  of  the  board,  and  four  inches  along 
the  line.  Place  your  bevel  with  the  handle 
against  the  edge  of  the  board,  set  EXERCISE  si. 
the  blade  so  that  the  edge  of  it  Layi~out 
shall  pass  exactly  through  the  two  dove-tails, 
points  thus  determined,  and  clamp  it.  With 
the  bevel  thus  set,  placing  it  against  the  end 
of  the  piece  A,  you  can  mark  first  all  the 
lines  which  slope  in  one  direction,  and  then, 
turning  it  over,  all  those  that  slope  in  the 
other  direction.  They  will  appear  as  in  Fig. 
52  A.  The  dove-tails  will  be  a  little  wider 
at  the  ends  and  will  hold  a  little  tighter,  if 
the  bevel  is  set  with  a  slope  of  3^-  to  1,  or 
even  of  3  to  1,  instead  of  4  to  1.  This,  how- 
ever, will  make  the  acute  angles  of  the  dove- 
tails and  pins  weaker,  and  if  the  wood  is  soft 
they  may  break  off  at  the  edges.  The  work 
is  sometimes  laid  out  with  smaller  pins  and 
wider  dove-tails,  as  in  Fig.  53  A.  This 
lessens  the  amount  of  work  to  be  done,  but 
leaves  the  pins  rather  weak.  If  both  the 
pins  and  the  dove-tails  are  widened,  as  in 
Fig.  53  B,  the  work  has  the  appearanc  of  too 
much  sparing  of  labor.  You  may  lay  out,  on 


124 


Manual    Training. 


the  edges    and    ends    of  your    piece    of  board 
sets    of   dove-tails   with    different    angles    and 


d 
d 


.  53 


spaces,  and  compare  them  as  to  appearance 
and  strength,  and  may  select  one  for  your 
work  if  you  prefer  to  do  so. 

Having  marked  out  the  dove-tails  on  one 
of  the  faces  of  A,  set  the  piece  upright  in  the 
vise,  and  from  the  ends  of  the  oblique  lines 


Wood  -  Working.  125 


draw  fine  lines  with  your  square  across  the 
ends  of  the  pieces.  If  the  end  is  rough,  you 
can  make  these  lines  clearer  by  first  rubbing 
some  chalk  into  the  end-wood.  After  these 
lines  are  made,  draw  with  the  bevel,  dove- 
tails on  the  other  face,  to  correspond  with 
those  already  drawn  on  the  first. 

Next  mark  out  the  pin-pieces  B.  The 
drawing,  Fig.  52  B,  shows  that  side  of  B  on 
which  the  pins  are  narrowest,  which  is  the 
outside  when  the  piece  is  in  its  place  in  the 
box.  Lay  the  ends  B  on  your  bench  with 
the  other  side,  or  inside,  up,  and  lay  out  on 
c  d  the  same  distances  that  you  have  already 
marked  on  a  b.  Be  very  careful  to  have  these 
distances  exactly  equal  to  those  on  a  b.  Ap- 
plying the  square  to  the  end  of  B,  draw  lines 
through  the  points  thus  found,  perpendicular 
to  the  end.  Holding  the  piece  upright  in  the 
vise,  draw,  with  the  bevel,  lines  on  the  end  of 
B,  corresponding  exactly  with  those  on  the 
face  of  A,  as  in  Fig.  52  D.  Lastly,  with 
the  square,  draw  on  the  opposite  face  of  B 
the  lines  perpendicular  to  the  ends  as  in  52  B. 

When  you  have  marked  out  all    the  pieces, 


126 


Manual    Training. 


hold    the    end-piece     B    upright    in    the    vise, 
the  face  B  being  turned   towards  you.     Set  A 
EXERCISE  32.    on    B,   the   end    IV   turned    from 
Dove-tailed     you>  and  assure  yourself,  by  care- 
box-          ful   inspection,  that  the   lines    on 
the  one   piece    correspond    exactly    with    those 
on   the   other,    so   that   there  shall  be  no  mis- 
take when  you  begin    to    cut   the   pieces.     In- 
spect   the    other    corners    in    the    same    way. 
Mark   the  corners  that   are   to   go   together,  I, 
I ;  II,  II ;  III,   III ;    IV,   IV.     Mark    the   parts 
that   are   to    be  cut  out    as   in    Fig.*  54.     This 


ct, 


will    prevent  the   mistake,  very  common  with 
beginners,  of   cutting  out  the  wrong  pieces. 

With  the  fine  back-saw,  called  "  dove-tail 
saw,"  make  all  the  cuts  on  the  pin  pieces, 
and  then  all  the  cuts  on  the  dove-tail  pieces, 
being  careful  in  both  cases  to  cut  close  up 


I  0NIVERSIT  r 
TFoo<i  -  Working.  127 


to  the  mark,  but  not  beyond  it.  If  this  is 
skillfully  done  the  pieces  will  fit  together 
without  paring.  Then,  laying  the  pieces  on 
a  clean  board  on  your  bench,  cut  out  the 
waste-pieces  as  in  the  last  exercise. 

The  points   to  be  specially  attended   to  are : 

Not  to  cut  a  wrong  piece. 

Not  to  cut  beyond  the  mark. 

Not  to  drive  the  chisel  too  far  perpendicu- 
larly before  making  an  oblique  cut  (Fig.  51) 

Not  to  cut  quite  through  from  one  side, 
but  to  work  from  both  alternately. 

Not  to  let  the  corners  of  the  chisel  cut 
into  the  sides  of  the  pins. 

Not  to  drive  the  pieces  violently  together 
if  they  fit  tight. 

When  the  pieces  are  put  together,  every 
joint  should  be  perfectly  close,  the  ends  of 
each  piece  should  come  just  even  or  "  flush" 
with  the  surface  of  the  next,  and  the  box 
should  be  perfectly  square  at  all  its  corners, 
perfectly  free  from  winding,  and  exactly  of 
the  proposed  dimensions. 

[The  glue  required  for  the  next  lesson  should  be  partly 
prepared  during  this  lesson.] 


LESSON  XVIII. 

Gluing. 

A  BOX  properly  dove-tailed  together  would 
preserve  its  shape  without  glue  or  any 
other  joining  material,  unless  subjected  to  con- 
siderable strain.  To  hold  it  in  proper  shape 
in  spite  of  strains  it  must  be  fastened  with 
glue ;  and  when  properly  glued  it  is  impos- 
sible to  get  it  apart  without  breaking,  except 
by  soaking  it  in  water. 

To  prepare  glue,  soak  it  over-night  in 
enough  cold  water  to  cover  it,  and  in  the 
morning  cook  it  gently  for  an  hour  or  two 
in  the  inner  bowl  of  the  glue-pot,  stirring  it 
from  time  to  time,  and  taking  care  that  the 
water  in  the  outer  pot  does  not  boil  away 
and  allow  the  glue  to  burn.  When  ready  for 
use,  the  glue,  if  thoroughly  hot,  will  flow 
from  a  stick  or  brush  in  a  smooth  thread, 
running  off  pretty  freely,  but  not  in  drops. 
It  is  very  important  that  it  should  be  of 

128 


Wood  -  Working.  129 


just  the  right  consistency.  If  too  thin,  it 
will  soak  into  the  wood  without  acting  as  a 
cement.  If  too  thick,  and  especially  if  cold, 
it  will  make  a  jelly-like  layer  over  the  wood, 
preventing  the  pieces  from  coming  in  contact. 
It  is  not  easy  to  describe  the  proper  condition 
of  the  glue,  but  when  you  have  seen  it  a 
few  times  you  will  have  no  difficulty  in 
recognizing  it.  It  may  be  remarked  that  the 
beginner  is  in  general  disposed  to  use  it  too 
thick  rather  than  too  thin  ;  at  the  same  time 
it  is  unmistakably  too  thin,  if  it  falls  from 
the  brush  in  drops  with  the  sound  of  dripping 
water. 

After  getting  the  glue  of  the  proper  consist- 
ency it  is  equally  important  to  have  it 
thoroughly  hot  when  used.  It  is  worse  than 
useless  to  allow  yourself  to  be  led  by  impa- 
tience into  using  the  glue  before  it  is  just 
right.  Not  only  must  the  glue  be  hot,  but 
the  pieces  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied  must 
be  heated  till  they  are  hot  to  the  touch  ; 
and  the  room  in  which  the  gluing  is  done 
must  be  warm  and  free  from  draughts.  No 
open  window  must  be  allowed  near  work 


130  Manual    Training. 

that  is  being  glued  (except  in  the  case  of 
veneering,  when  heat  is  supplied  in  another 
way).  Lastly,  the  work  of  gluing  must  be 
done  quickly,  so  that  the  wood  and  the  glue 
shall  have  no  time  to  chill,  and  as  much  of 
the  glue  as  possible  must  be  driven  out  from 
between  the  pieces  by  forcing  them  close 
together. 

Bearing  these  particulars  in  mind  you  may 
now  proceed  to  glue  your  box  together.  First 
put  it  together  without  glue.  Set  two  hand- 

EXERCISE  33.   screws    to  a  width    equal    to   the 
Setting        width   of   the  box.      The    proper 

hand-screws.  way  to  open  or  close  a  hand- 
screw,  when  it  requires  much  change,  is  to 
take  one  of  the  screw-handles  in  each  hand, 
hold  it  with  the  open  jaws  towards  your  face, 
and  then  revolve  one  hand  round  the  other, 
making  the  jaws  turn  quickly  between  your 
arms,  and  being  careful  of  course  that  they  do 
not  hit  your  face  as  they  turn.  After  a  little 
practice  this  becomes  very  easy,  even  with 
rather  large  screws.  After  you  have  thus 
turned  the  screw  to  about  the  right  width, 
place  it,  points  downward,  on  the  box,  which 


Wood  -  Working. 


131 


is  resting  on  the  bench,  move  it  along  near 
to  one  end,  but  not  so  near  as  to  rest  on  the 
dove-tails,  and  turn  the  front  screw  A,  Fig.  55, 


till  the  jaws  touch  at  the  edge  C  D.  Then  turn 
the  back  screw  B,  till  they  take  a  firm  hold 
at  both  edges.  Considerable  care  is  required  in 
this  operation,  to  avoid  putting  too  much  press- 


132 


Manual    Training. 


ure  on  one  part  and  too  little  on  another.  If 
you  tighten  the  front  screw  A  too  much,  the 
pressure  on  the  back  edge  will  be  excessive 
when  you  come  to  screw  up  the  hinder  one. 
If  you  do  not  tighten  it  enough,  the  screw 
will  bite  at  the  point  and  not  at  the  back. 
If  you  find  your  first  attempt  unsuccessful, 
you  must  always  loosen  the  back  screw  before 
trying  to  readjust  the  front  one.  When  the 
adjustment  is  right,  the  jaws  should  appear 
exactly  parallel  when  the  screws  are  well 
tightened,  and  should  press  equally  on  point 


and  heel.  Either  of  the  positions  in  Fig.  56 
is  faulty,  and  tends  to  break  some  of  the  dove- 
tails, while  leaving  others  open  at  the  joints. 

Having  set  one  screw  at  each  end  so  that 
it  shall  press  properly,  closing  all  the  joints 
and  leaving  the  box  in  good  shape,  loosen 


Wood  -  Working.  133 


the  back  screws  a  little  and  the  front  screws 
still  less,  only  just  enough  to  allow  the 
hand-screws  to  be  taken  off  easily,  and  lay 
them  on  the  bench  ready  for  use.  See  that 
the  corners  of  the  box  are  conspicuously 
numbered  so  that  you  can  quickly  place 
them  together  again  in  their  proper  order. 
Place  them  in  front  of  a  fire,  or  in  an  oven, 
or  on  top  of  a  stove.  If  the  last,  they  must, 
if  the  stove  is  very  hot,  be  raised  a  little 
from  the  top  on  small  pieces  of  wood,  to 
prevent  them  from  burning,  and  in  either 
case  should  be  turned  from  time  to  time. 
When  they  are  well  warmed,  lay  them  one 
on  top  of  another  on  your  bench,  in  the 
order  in  which  they  are  numbered,  and,  with 
the  least  possible  loss  of  time  apply  the  glue. 
This  may  be  applied  with  a  brush  of  suitable 
size,  in  the  following  way.  First  pass  the 
brush  crosswise  over  the  wide  sides  of  the 
pins,  not  letting  the  glue  run  over  the  ends 
or  backs ;  enough  glue  will  run  in  on  the 
inclined  faces  of  the  pins,  or  a  little  may 
be  rubbed  in  there  with  the  end  of  the 
brush.  Next  pass  the  brush  crosswise  over  the 


134  Manual    Training. 

inside  faces  of  the  dove-tails,  allowing  a  little 
to  run  inside,  but  none  on  the  ends  or  the 
out  s^e  ^aces-  When  the  two 


EXERCISE  34 

pieces  are  driven  together,  every 

surface  of  contact  will  have  glue 
on  it,  and  all  the  outside  surfaces  will  be 
clean.  Put  them  together  quickly,  driving 
them  close  with  the  mallet  or  hammer  (strik- 
ing on  a  strip  of  wood  so  as  not  to  bruise 
them),  apply  the  hand-screws,  and  tighten 
them  up  as  they  were  before.  A  good  deal 
of  glue  will  be  forced  out  of  the  joints. 
This  must  not  be  allowed  to  dry  on  the 
wood,  as  it  is  very  hard  to  get  it  off  when 
it  is  dry.  Scrape  off  most  of  it  with  a  chisel, 
without  scratching  the  wood,  and  wash  off 
the  rest  with  a  piece  of  clean  rag  or  a  bunch 
of  shavings  wet  with  hot  water. 

As  success  in  this,  as  in  all  gluing  opera- 
tions, depends  greatly  on  quickness,  it  will  be 
well,  the  first  time,  to  rehearse  all  the  move- 
ments with  a  dry  brush  without  glue,  and 
not  apply  the  glue  till  you  are  sure  you  can 
perform  all  the  movements  rapidly  and 
without  confusion. 


Wood  -  Working.  135 


If  the  joints  are  good  and  the  screws  prop- 
erly applied,  the  box  will  preserve  its  shape. 
As  there  is  always,  however,  some  risk  of  dis- 
torting it,  it  is  best  to  examine  it  carefully 
as  soon  as  it  is  screwed  up.  The  hand-screws 
will  prevent  you  from  applying  a  square,  out- 
side, and  you  will  only  be  able  to  apply  a 
small  one  inside,  or  to  test  the  squareness  by 
the  eye,  or  by  measuring  the  two  diagonals, 
which  ought  to  be  equal.  The  winding  may 
be  tested  by  setting  the  box  on  your  bench. 
Any  error  in  squareness  or  winding  must  be 
corrected  by  loosening  the  screws,  and  apply- 
ing a  suitable  pressure  at  once,  before  the 
glue  sets.  After  this  the  screws  are  to  be 
carefully  tightened  again,  and  must  not  be 
disturbed  for  three  or  four  hours,  when  the 
glue  will  be  quite  dry. 


LESSON  XIX. 

Finishing    a    Dove-Tailed    Box. 

THE  box   being   glued   together   is   now   to 
have    the    bottom     glued    on,    the     top 
fastened   on  with  hinges,  and  the  surfaces  all 
finished  up  true  and  smooth. 

To  put  on  the  bottom  you  must  plane  up 
the  bottom  edges  square,  smooth,  and  free 
from  winding.  Use  the  square  and  the 
smoothing-plane,  and  be  very  careful  not  to 
splinter  the  edges.  There  is  much  danger  of 
doing  this  at  the  corners.  The  front  and 
back  overlap  the  ends,  so  that,  while  in 
running  the  plane  along  the  edge  of  the  front 
or  back  you  will  be  planing  lengthwise  of 
the  grain,  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the 
stroke  you  will  run  crosswise  over  the  end- 
pieces,  and  will  be  very  likely  to  splinter 
them  at  the  edge.  In  the  same  way,  in 
planing  along  the  end-pieces  you  will  be 
likely  to  splinter  the  front  and  back.  The 

136 


Wood  -  Working.  137 


way  to  avoid  this  is,  in  the  first  place,  to 
have  the  plane  set  fine,  and  in  the  next,  to 
change  the  course  of  the  plane  at  the  corners, 
so  as  to  work  obliquely  instead  of  going 
square  across  the  grain  of  either  piece. 

When  you  have  planed  the  lower  edges 
true  you  may  glue  the  bottom  on,  taking  the 
same  precautions  as  in  the  last  exercise  as  to 
the  condition  of  the  glue,  the  heating  of  the 
surfaces,  the  proper  manner  of  applying  the 
hand-screw,  and  the  cleaning  off  of  the  glue 
that  flows  out.  In  cases  like  this,  where  it 
is  not  easy  to  get  at  the  glue  to  clean  it  off, 
it  may  be  prevented  from  sticking  by  rubbing 
the  surface  with  soap  or  wax,  being  very 
careful  to  get  none  on  the  surfaces  which  are 
to  be  glued  together.  Moreover,  as  you  can- 
not easily  get  at  the  inside  of  the  box  to 
finish  it  up  after  it  is  put  together,  all  the 
surfaces  must  be  made  smooth  and  clean 
before  it  is  glued. 

When  the  glue  is  dry  you  may  finish  the 
upper  edges  as  you  have  already  finished  the 
lower  ones,  and  make  the  box  of  the  same 
height  all  round,  if  it  is  not  exactly  so 
already, 


138  Manual    Training. 

Next,  finish  up  the  sides,  using  as  before 
a  sharp  smoothing-plane.  Hold  the  box  in 
the  vise,  with  one  end  up,  and  plane  off' 
first  the  ends  of  the  bottom.  In  doing  this 
you  are  planing  "  end- wood,"  or  cutting  across 
the  ends  of  the  fibers,  and  must  be  very 
careful  not  to  splinter  the  wood  at  the  end 
of  the  stroke.  To  avoid  this  you  must  let 
EXERCISE  35.  the  stroke  extend  only  half- 
Planing  way  across  the  end,  and  when 
end-wood.  yOU  have  thus  cut  down  one 
corner  of  the  bottom  nearly  enough,  turn 
the  box  round  in  the  vise  and  plane  the 
other  corner,  never  letting  your  plane  run 
clear  out  to  the  edge.  Plane  down  the  other 
end  of  the  bottom  in  the  same  way.  As 
this  work  is  rather  hard,  you  had  better,  if 
there  is  much  more  than  about  an  eighth 
of  an  inch  to  take  off,  cut  off  most  of  it 
with  the  back-saw.  After  planing  off  the 
ends  of  the  bottom,  plane  off  the  sides  of  the 
same.  The  reason  for  not  planing  the  sides 
first  is,  that  if  you  should,  in  spite  of  your 
care,  splinter  them  a  little  while  planing  the 
ends,  the  defects  thus  caused  could  be  planed 


Wood  -  Working.  139 


out.  If  there  is  much  wood  to  be  taken  off 
here,  use  the  jack-plane  first,  and  finish  with 
the  smoothing-plane.  Here  also  you  must  be 
careful  to  avoid  splintering,  not  the  bottom, 
but  the  pins  of  the  end-pieces.  Lastly,  plane 
up  the  four  sides  with  the  smoothing-plane, 
working  from  the  corners  inwards,  and  never 
letting  the  plane  run  out.  Test  for  square- 
ness, straightness,  and  winding  as  you  work, 
and  set  the  plane  very  sharp  and  fine  for 
the  finishing  strokes. 

If  there  is  any  glue  on  the  inside,  it  can 
be  best  removed  with  a  chisel  when  it  has 
got  quite  hard,  provided  you  have  soaped  or 
waxed  the  surface  so  that  it  cannot  stick. 


LiESSOK    XX. 


Fitting    Hinges. 

YOU  are  now  ready  to  put  hinges  on  your 
box.  Fig.  57  shows  a  plan  and  an  end 
elevation  of.  a  hinge.  When  applied  to  the 
box  the  upper  half  of  the  hinge 
is  to  be  sunk  into  the  top,  and 
the  lower  half  into  the  edge  of 
the  back,  and  both  are  to  be 
fastened  on  with  screws.  Lay  the 
two  hinges  on  the  edge  of  the 
box  where  you  intend  to  fasten 
them,  as  in  Fig.  58,  not  at  the 
ends,  nor  yet  too  near  the  middle. 
Mark  the  length  of  the  hinges  on 
the  edge,  and  with  the  square 
draw  fine  pencil-lines  across.  Next  mark  on 
the  edge  the  width  the  hinges  are  to  occupy. 
This  is  not  the  full  width  of  the  hinges,  but 
only  the  distance  from  the  center  of  the  pin 
to  the  edge  of  the  hinge,  because,  when  the 

140 


o 


o 


Wood  -  Working. 


141 


hinge   is   fastened   on,  it  and   the  box  should 

appear   as   in    Fig.    59,   the    center   of  the   pin 

falling   exactly  at  the 

corners     of    the     two 

pieces.      With     the 

gauge      set      to      this 

width,    mark    the 

width    of    the    hinge, 

making   only    a    light 

scratch,  and  extend- 
ing it  only  the  length 

of    the    hinge.      Hold 

the     top    against    the 

back,  as  in    Fig.   58,  without  the  hinges,  and 

transfer  the  four  cross-marks  to  the  top, 

and  then,  with  the 

square,  mark  the 
length  of  the  hinges, 
and  with  the  gauge 
mark  their  width, 
just  as  on  the  edge. 
Next,  mark  the 

depth   to   which    the   hinges   are   to   be    sunk. 

In    order   that    they   may    let    the    top    close 

properly,   they    must    be   let    in   exactly    half 


142  Manual    Training. 

their  thickness  into  each  part  of  the  box. 
If  you  place  your  gauge,  therefore,  against 
the  face  A  B,  Fig.  57,  and  set  it  so  that  the 
point  reaches  exactly  to  the  middle  of  the 
pin,  this  will  show  how  deep  the  hinge  is  to 
be  let  in.  With  the  gauge  thus  set  mark 
the  back,  and  the  edge  of  the  top. 

All  being  properly  marked  out,  lay  the  top 
on  your  bench,  and  cut  out  the  pieces  to 

EXERCISE  36.  make  room  for  the  hinges.     This 

Fitting        operation   is   exactly  the  same  as 

hinges.         that  of  cutting  a  mortise,  except 

that    the     cut     is    a    very    shallow    one,    and 

you   will    have    to    be  careful   not   to   go   too 

deep. 

Place  the  chisel  near  one  end  of  the  cut 
and  drive  it  in,  nearly  to  the  depth  marked. 
Make  a  series  of  similar  cuts  about  I"  apart 
along  the  length  of  the  hinge.  This  breaks 
up  the  wood  so  that,  holding  the  box  in  the 
vise,  you  can  easily,  by  cutting  across  the 
grain,  pare  away  the  wood  down  to  the  mark. 
Then,  laying  the  piece  on  the  bench  again, 
finish  cutting  away  the  little  that  has  been 
left  on  the  three  sides  of  the  spaces,  till  the 


Wood  -  Working.  143 


hinges  exactly  fit.  Fit  them  into  the  top  in 
the  same  way. 

Now  put  the  hinges  in  place,  without  screws, 
lay  the  top  on,  and  see  whether  they  are  let 
in  deep  enough.  If  not,  carefully  cut  away 
enough  wood  to  let  them  into  their  proper 
places.  If  you  should  happen  to  cut  away 
too  much  (which  you  ought  not  to  do)  you 
must  glue  a  piece  of  card-board  or  shaving 
under  the  hinge  to  bring  it  up.  Also,  open 
the  top,  put  the  hinges  in  place,  as  in  Fig.  58, 
and  see  whether  the  back  edge  of  the  top 
just  touches  the  edge  of  the  back  all  along. 
If  all  these  adjustments  are  correctly  made, 
you  may  make  a  small  hole  with  an  awl 
exactly  in  the  middle  of  each  of  the  holes 
in  the  hinges,  and  put  in  the  screws  with 
your  small  screw-driver,  being  careful,  before 
using  any  screw  on  the  top,  to  assure  yourself 
that  it  is  not  so  long  as  to  go  through. 

With  all  the  care  you  can  take  in  putting 
on  hinges,  several  faults  are  likely  to  occur. 

1.  If  the  hinges  are  not  let  in  deep  enough 
the  top  will  not  shut  close  at  the  back. 

2.  If  they  are  let  in  too  deep,  the  top  will 


144  Manual    Training. 

not  close  at  the  front,  or,  if  it  is  forced  shut, 
a  strain  will  be  thrown  on  the  hinges,  and  the 
screws  will  be  pulled  out. 

3.  If  the  space  cut  out   is    too  narrow,  the 
hinges  will  stand  out   too  far,  giving  an  ugly 
appearance,  and    leaving    an    unnecessary    gap 
between    the   top  and  the  back  when  the  box 
is  opened. 

4.  If   too   wide   a   space  is  cut   out,  letting 
the  hinges    in    beyond    the  center  of   the   pin, 
the  corner  of   the    top    will    press    against  the 
corner  of  the   back  as  soon  as  the  top   begins 
to    rise,  and    opening    the    top    will    force    off 
the  hinges. 

5.  If    the    width    allowed    for    one  hinge  is 
greater   than    that   allowed    for    the  other,  the 
top  will    not    shut  down  square  over  the  box, 
but  will  stand  out,  at  the  front,  .more  on  one 
side  than  on  the  other. 

The  cause  of  any  of  these  faults  being 
understood,  it  is  easy  to  apply  the  remedy. 
Taking  out  the  screws,  you  must  set  the 
hinges  deeper,  or  put  something  under  them, 
or  set  one  or  both  farther  in  or  farther  out. 
Either  of  the  above  changes  will  oblige  you 


Wood  -  Working.  145 


to  make  new  holes  for  the  screws,  so  that 
they  may  push  the  hinges  in  the  proper 
direction.  Before  doing  this,  the  old  holes 
must  be  plugged  up  with  small  sticks  whit- 
tled to  the  proper  size  and  fastened  in  with 
glue. 

After  the  top  is  hinged  at  one  edge,  the 
other  three  edges  are  to  be  finished,  the  ends 
first  and  then  the  front,  with  the  same  pre- 
cautions that  were  used  in  finishing  the 
bottom. 

A  small  brass  hook-and-eye  may  be  put 
on,  to  keep  the  box  shut.  This  operation 
will  need  no  explanation. 


XXI. 

Making   a    paneled    Door.  —  Isometric 
Drawing. 

IN  Lesson  XIII  you  planed  up  the  sides  of 
your  box  and  put  them  away;  and  when 
you  took  them  out  again  you  found  that 
they  had  shrunk  in  width  though  not  in 
length,  and  you  measured  the  amount  of 
the  shrinkage.  You  found  also  that  some 
of  the  pieces  had  checked,  and  some  had 
warped.  When  large  pieces  of  wood  are  used, 
shrinkage,  warping,  and  checking  give  rise  to 
serious  trouble.  Thus,  in  a  door  30  inches 
wide  shrinkage  may  amount  to  half  an  inch 
or  more,  and  warping  to  an  inch,  and  long 
and  wide  cracks  are  almost  sure  to  appear. 
Moreover,  the  shrinking  does  not  take  place 
once  for  all,  and  then  come  to  an  end,  but 
the  wood  having  once  shrunk  may  swell 
again,  and  shrink  again,  and  so  on  repeatedly. 
Doors  that  are  exposed  to  the  dry  air  of 

146 


Wood  -  Working. 


147 


houses  which  are  heated  in  winter  become 
very  loose,  but  sometimes  swell  up  in  summer 
so  much  as  to  stick.  The  shrinkage  will  be 
less  if  the  wood  has  been  thoroughly  seasoned, 
but  the  swelling  in  damp  weather  can  hardly 
be  prevented. 

Doors  are  therefore  never  made  in  one 
piece,  but  are  always  i 
constructed  of  parts, 
so  arranged  as  to 
reduce  as  much  as 
possible  the  bad 
effects  of  these 
changes.  There  are 
two  principal  meth- 
ods of  construction 
by  which  this  is  ac- 
complished. The  first 
is  the  battened  door 
and  the  second  the 
paneled  door.  The 
battened  door  is  made 
of  strips,  Fig.  60, 
running  lengthwise  of  the  door  and  held 
together  by  cross-strips  or  battens,  fastened 


148  Manual    Training. 

on  with  screws  or  nails.  As  the  wood  shrinks 
only  in  width  and  not  in  length,  the  shrinking 
of  the  strips  will  only  cause  the  edges  to 

separate  a  little,  and 
^^_  **  _^^  will  produce  scarcely 

any  change  in  the 
r -r r  -  ^rt: -r-=~~i  width  of  the  door. 


JFtg.61.  The  warping,  also,  in 

this     case,    will     be 

small  in  amount.  While  a  piece  the  whole 
width  of  the  door  might  warp,  as  at  a,  Fig. 

61,  a    battened    door  would    appear   as    at   b. 
The  separating   of    the    strips,   leaving   cracks 
in  the  door,  is  prevented  by  using  "  matched  " 
boards,    or    "  tongue    and    groove "    joints,    as 
shown    in   the   plan    Fig.    60,    or   on    a   larger 
scale  in  Fig. 

62.  In    this       ^ _ , 

case       the     £_ ^ ^ 

tongues    slip  Fvy.  62. 

partly     out 

of  the  grooves  when  the  wood  shrinks, 
but  do  not  leave  the  joints  open.  This 
construction  is  simple  and  effective,  and  is 
much  used  where  fine  workmanship  and 


Wood  -  Working. 


149 


a 


handsome  appearance  are  not  important, 
as  in  the  doors  of  barns  and  outhouses. 
For  dwelling-houses  and  in  cabinet-work  the 
paneled  door  is  used.  This  is  a  frame-work 
mortised  to- 
gether at  the 
corners,  and 
grooved  all 
round  on  the 
inner  edge  to 
receive  a  thin 
piececalledthe 
panel,as  shown 
in  Fig.  63.  The 
shrinking  o  f 
the  panel  only 
causes  it  to 
slip  in  the 
groove.  As  the 
cross-pieces  at 
the  top  and 
bottom  under- 
go no  change  in  length,  the  only  altera- 
tion in  width  that  the  door  will  suffer  is 
the  slight  one  due  to  the  shrinking  in  the 


£==  = 


"."• 


C 


i 


150  Manual    Training. 

width  of  the  two  upright  pieces.  We  will 
proceed  to  make  such  a  door  from  the 
figured  sketch,  in  which  A  shows  the  eleva- 
tion, B  the  plan,  and  C  a  section  on  the 
line  a  b. 

The  first  step  is  to  get  out  the  material. 
This  consists  of  the  top  and  bottom  pieces, 
called  the  rails,  the  upright  sides,  called 
stiles,  and  the  thin  central  piece  or  panel. 
Take  the  dimensions  of  these  from  the 
drawing,  and  mark  them  out  on  boards  of 
the  proper  thickness,  being  careful  to  allow 
for  the  saw-kerf  and  for  the  material  which 
will  be  wasted  in  planing  up  the  pieces  to 
the  true  shape  and  dimensions.  Furthermore, 
as  the  mortises  will  be  very  near  the  ends 
of  the  stiles,  the  latter  may  be  cut  \\" 
longer  than  the  door,  so  that  they  may 
project  I"  at  each  end,  as  in  the  Figure, 
and  the  tenon-pieces,  or  rails,  may  be  made 
1"  longer  than  the  width  of  the  door,  so 
that  the  tenons  may  project  }"  beyond  the 
stiles  till  all  is  finished,  after  which  the 
projecting  parts  can  be  cut  off.  The  rails, 
therefore,  will  be  cut  out  16"  long  and 
the  stiles  21}"  long. 


Wood  -  Working. 


151 


Ill  laying  out  the  frame,  try,  as  in  Lesson 
VIII.  to  avoid  knots  and  cracks,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  waste  as  little  wood  as  possible. 
The  four  pieces  may  be  laid  out  in  one 
way  or  another,  according  to  the  character 
of  the  wood  from  which  they  are  to  be 
cut.  If  the  board  were  much  checked  at 
the  end,  as  in  Fig.  64,  you  should  cut  off 

T 


just  enough  to  remove  the  short  cracks,  and 
might  then  lay  out  the  work  so  that  the 
long  cracks  which  remain  should  lie  in 


JFiy. 


the  waste-wood  left  at  the  ends  of  the  short 
pieces.  If  there  were  a  bad  knot  at  a,  Fig. 
65,  this  might  be  made  to  fall  in  the  waste- 


tfNIVEBSITYJ 


152  Manual    Training. 

wood  between  the  rails  and  the  stiles ;  and  so 
on,  according  to  the  position  and  character 
of  the  defects. 

The  frame-pieces  being  cut  out,  they  are 
to  be  finished  to  exact  dimensions  and  true 
surfaces  as  in  previous  lessons.  The  joints 
are  then  to  be  marked  out  with  gauge, 
square,  and  pencil,  making  all  gauge  and 
square  marks  from  the  front  surface  and 
inner  edge  of  the  pieces,  which  must  be 
marked  to  distinguish  them. 

The  laying  out  of  the  joint  in  this  exer- 
cise is  complicated  by  two  circumstances. 
The  first  of  these  is  that  the  tenon  must 
be  made  of  less  width  than  the  full  width 
of-  the  rail,  in  order  that  the  mortise  may 
not  run  out  quite  to  the  end  of  the  stile. 
The  second  is,  that  a  groove  is  to  be  cut 
in  the  inner  edge  of  the  four  pieces,  and 
this  groove,  unless  a  special  arrangement  is 
made  to  prevent  it,  will  leave  a  hole  be- 
tween the  end  of  the  stile  and  the  shoulder 
of  the  mortise,  as  shown  in  the  sketch  of 
one  joint  at  a,  Fig.  66.  To  prevent  this, 
a  projecting  stud,  or  tooth,  is  left  on  the 


Wood  -  Working. 


153 


tenon-piece,   as   shown    in   plan   and   elevation 
at   a   and   6,  Fig.    67, 

This  construction,  and  the  method  of  laying 
it  out,  may  be  better 
understood  by  the  help 
of  another  kind  of  draw- 
ing called  Isometric  Pro- 
jection, the  elements  of 
which  can  be  easily  understood. 

The    elevations    and     plans    that    we    have 
hitherto      used      are     projections     on     planes 

parallel  to  the 
front,  bottom, 
and  sides  of 
the  object;  that 
is  to  say,  they 
are  views  taken 
from  a  point 
at  a  great  dis- 
tance in  front 
of  the  Object, 


.  €7. 


above  it,  or  to 
one  side  of  it. 

The  eye  being  at  a  very  great  distance  from 
the   object,  if    a  plane    be   placed   parallel    to 


154 


Manual    Training, 


a, 


the  face  of  the  object,  the  lines  drawn  from 
all  points  of  the  object  to  the  eye  are  per- 
pendicular to  the  plane.  If  lines  are  thus 
drawn  from  all  points  on  the  edges  and 
other  lines  of  the  object,  they  cut  the  plane 
in  a  number  of  lines  which  make  up  what 
is  called  the  projection  of  the  object.  The 
elevations  and  plan  already  drawn  are  such 
projections,  and  are  called 
right  projections.  If  we  take 
our  point  of  view  not  exactly 
in  front  of  the  object,  but  a 
little  to  one  side,  or  if,  which 
is  the  same  thing,  we  turn 
the  object  so  that  its  front 
is  not  parallel  to  the  plane 
of  projection,  the  appearance 
of  the  object  is  changed,  and 
the  projection  is  called  an 
oblique  projection.  The  front 
of  the  object  appears  nar- 
rower, and  the  side,  which  was 
invisible  before,  comes  into  view.  Suppose, 
for  instance,  the  object  were  a  cube,  of  which 
the  plan  is  A,  Fig.  68.  Then,  on  the  plane 


B 


Wood  -  Working. 


155 


of  projection,  the  front  of  it  appears  as  a 
square,  in  the  elevation  B,  and  the  side  a  is 
not  seen  at  all  in  this  elevation.  But,  if  the 
cube  be  turned  round  to  the  position  (7,  Fig. 
69,  the  front  face  will 
appear  narrowed,  or 
"  foreshortened  "  to  the 
width  be,  and  the  right- 
hand  face  will  come  into 
view  and  will  have  the 
apparent  breadth  c  d. 
The  elevation,  therefore, 
will  now  present  the 
appearance  shown  in  7), 
Fig.  69,  where  b  cfg 
represents  one  of  the 
visible  faces  of  the  cube, 
c  d  hf  another,  and  e  d 
h  i  and  b  e  i  g  the  two 
invisible  or  rear  faces.  -f^y-  &&• 

If  we  take  the  point  of 

view  still  farther  to  the  right,  or  turn  the 
object  farther  round,  the  front  becomes  ap- 
parently narrower,  the  right  face  wider,  and 
the  two  appear  presently  of  equal  width. 


D 


cL 


156 


Manual    Training. 


This  happens  when  the  square  (7,  Fig.  G9,  has 
been  turned  so  that  its  diagonal  is  perpendic- 
ular to  the  plane  of  projection,  as  at  E,  Fig. 

70.  The  elevation  then 
appears    as    at    F,    in 
which  a  b  and  c  d  rep- 
resent    the     faces     of 
the   cube,  and   appear 
of    equal     width.      If, 
now,  we  take  our  point 
of   view    not    only    to 
the  right  of  the  object, 
but    also    higher,    the 
vertical    lines    will   be 
foreshortened  also,  the 
upper  surface  wrillcome 
into  view,  and  the  cube 
will  appear  as  in  Fig. 

71.  If    the    point    of 
view    be     taken     still 
higher,  the  edge  P  Q 

will  be  made  to  appear  of  the  same  length 
as  P  R  and  P  S,  Fig.  72.  All  dimensions 
which  are  parallel  to  either  edge  are  then 
equally  foreshortened,  and  the  drawing  is 


Wood  -  Working. 


157 


called  an  isometric  drawing  or  isometric  pro- 
jection. The  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  72  show 
the  edges  of  the  cube  that  are  concealed. 
The  drawing  of  a  cube 
on  this  system  is  thus 
seen  to  be  extremely 
simple :  that  of  a  body 
with  unequal  dimen- 
sions is  not  difficult, 
provided  its  faces  are 
perpendicular  to  each 
other.  Thus,  if  it  is 
required  to  represent  a  body  of  this  shape 

whose  length,  breadth, 
and  thickness  are  re- 
spectively 3",  2",  and 
1",  we  have  only  to 
draw  three  lines  P  Q, 
P  R,  and  P  S,  Fig.  73, 
making  equal  angles 
with  each  other,  and 
to  lay  off  on  -the  one 
three  units  of  length, 
on  the  second  two  equal  units,  and  on  the 
third  one  of  the  same  units,  and  complete 


Manual    Training. 


the  drawing  as  in  the  figure.  The  drawing 
of  the  three  lines,  or  "  axes "  P  Q,  P  R, 
and  PS  is  easily  accomplished,  as  in  Fig.  74. 


Draw  a  circle  with  any  radius.  From  the 
highest  point  on  the  circumference  lay  off 
the  radius  six  times,  and  through  the  alternate 
points  draw  the  three  axes.  To  secure  accuracy 
the  radius  should  be  taken  at  least  as  long 
as  the  longest  line  in  the  drawing. 

It  will  be  well,  now,  to  make  a  few  iso- 
metric drawings  of  simple  objects,  such  as  the 
box  of  Lesson  XX.,  the  through  mortise  of 
Lesson  XV,  and  the  end  dove-tail  of  Lesson 
XVI.,  to  accustom  the  eye  to  the  "  reading  "  of 


Wood  -  Working. 


159 


such  drawings.  It  will  be  readily  seen  by 
those  who  understand  ordinary  perspective 
drawings,  that 
isometric  draw- 
ings differ  from 
these  only  in 
giving  the  true 
dimensions  of  the 
remote  as  well 
as  of  those  of 
the  near  parts, 
while  perspective 
drawings  make 
the  parts  that 
are  farther  away 
appear  smaller,  and  therefore  a  scale  cannot 
be  applied  to  them. 


LESSON  XXII. 

Paneled    Door   Continued. 

FIG.  75   is   an  isometric    drawing  of  a  part 
of  one  of  the  stiles  of  the  door,  showing 
the  mortise   and  the   groove,  and  Fig.  76  is  a 


•F^Of'  ?£• 

similar  drawing  of  the  end  of  the  rail  or  tenon- 
piece,  turned  round  so  that  the  shoulder  A  B 
is  towards  you,  and  the  tenon  C  and  the  stud 
D  are  visible.  From  these  drawings  you  will 

160 


Wood  -  Working. 


161 


be    able    to    understand    the    way   of   marking 
out  this  joint. 

As   the   tenons   are  to  project   half  an   inch 
beyond    the   stiles,  and  as  these  are  2i"  wide, 


a  mark  is  to  be  made  first,  all  around  each 
rail  3"  from  the  end,  and  a  second  mark 
10"  from  this,  which  will  be  3"  from  the 
other  end.  These  are  the  marks  at  A  B,  Fig. 
76,  which  show  the  shoulder  of  the  tenon. 


162  Manual    Training. 

They  should  be  interrupted  on  the  outer  edge 
at  the  middle,  as  at  D,  so  as  to  prevent  the 
EXERCISE  37.  mistake  of  cutting  across  the 
The  paneled  S^U(^  when  you  begin  to  saw. 
Door.  Next  the  thickness  of  the  tenon 
is  to  be  marked  with  the  gauge  on  the  edges 
and  ends  of  the  rails  as  at  E,  always  work- 
ing from  the  front  face.  Then  the  breadth  of 
the  tenon  is  to  be  marked  by  drawing,  with  the 
gauge,  lines  I"  and  2"  from  the  inner  edge, 
being  careful  not  to  extend  them  beyond  the 
cross  lines  at  D  and  F.  Lastly,  the  length 
of  the  stud  T)  is  to  be  marked  with  the 
square,  and  its  breadth  with  the  gauge.  The 
marking  will  then  appear  as  in  Fig.  77.  The 
marking  out  of  the  mortise  is  simpler,  and 
is  shown  in  Fig.  78.  Light  marks  P  Q  may 
be  made  3i"  from  the  ends  of  the  stiles, 
which  will  be  15"  apart,  and  will  indicate 
the  positions  of  the  inner  edges  of  the  rails, 
or  the  inside  length  of  the  frame.  Marks  R 
S  2¥'  from  these  will  indicate  the  outside 
length  of  the  frame.  These  should  both  be 
drawn  light,  as  no  cutting  is  to  be  done  on 
either  of  them.  They  may  indeed  be  omitted, 


Wood  -  Working. 


163 


though  they  serve  as  a  useful  check  to  pre- 
vent mistakes  in 
laying  out  the 
rest.  Marks  on 
the  inner  and 
outer  edges,  \" 
and  2"  from  P  Q 
will  show  the 
length  of  the 
mortise;  and 
gauge  marks 
with  the  gauge 
set  exactly  as  in 
drawing  A  B, 
Fig.  77,  and  meas- 
ured from  the 
front  face,  will 
show  the  width 
of  the  mortise. 
The  marking  will 
appear  as  in  Fig.  78,  in  which  the  dotted 
lines  are  on  the  rear  faces.  The  groove  for 
the  panel  is  not  shown  in  these  figures. 
It  appears  in  Fig.  75 ;  and  the  method  of 
marking  it  out  and  cutting  it  will  be  shown 
in  the  next  Lesson. 


164  Manual    Training. 

The  marking  being  now  finished,  the  cut- 
ting out  proceeds  as  follows :  With  the  back- 
saw  cut  first  the  lines  A  B,  Fig.  77,  then 
the  lines  C  D  and  E  F,  observing  that  C  D 
must  not  be  cut  so  deep  as  E  F,  in  order 
to  leave  the  stud  L  B  uninjured.  Next 
make  the  cross-cuts  G  H,  I  J,  I  K,  and  J  K, 
being  careful  not  to  cut  too  deep.  The  side 
pieces  will  then  fall  off,  leaving  the  tenon 
complete,  except  the  stud  L  B.  The  stud  is 
still  of  the  same  thickness  as  the  tenon,  and 
must  be  pared  down  to  the  proper  thickness 
with  the  chisel,  by  taking  off  &"  from  its 
back  face,  as  shown  in  Fig.  77  and  in  Fig. 
67  a.  The  tenon,  also,  will  need  some  paring, 
if  you  have  not  cut  exactly  to  the  marks 
with  the  saw ;  but  you  must  not  in  any  case 
cut  beyond  the  middle  of  the  mark. 

The  mortise  may  be  cut  with  the  center- 
bit  and  chisel  in  the  same  way  as  in  Lesson 
XV.,  page  89,  or  with  the  chisel  alone.  The 
breadth  of  the  mortise  being  small  and  its 
depth  considerable,  the  bit  will  be  apt  to  mar 
the  sides  of  the  cut,  unless  it  is  held  exactly 
perpendicular  to  the  face  of  the  piece  and 


Wood  -  Working. 


165 


kept  very  steady.  For  this  reason,  and  for 
the  sake  of  practicing  the  other  method,  we 
will  cut  out  this  mortise  with  the  chisel 
alone. 

Lay    the    piece    on    your   bench,    with   the 
edge  up.     To   steady   it,  you   may   first   lay   a 


79. 


hand-screw  on  the  bench,  then  set  the  piece 
in  it  and  tighten  the  screw,  as  in  Fig.  79. 
With  alternate  perpendicular  and  oblique 


166  Manual    Training. 

cuts,  as  described  on  page  116,  cut  the  mor- 
tise half-way  through  the  piece.  Then  turn 
the  piece  over  and  cut  in  the  same  way 
from  the  other  side.  When  the  two  cuts 
meet,  the  four  surfaces  are  to  be  pared  to 
the  marks,  using  a  wide  chisel  for  the  sides, 
and  being  careful  not  to  cut  away  anywhere 
more  than  half  the  width  of  each  mark. 
If  the  paring  of  both  pieces  has  been  prop- 
erly done,  the  tenon  will  fit  closely  in  the 
mortise.  If  it  fits  so  tightly  that  there  is 
danger  of  splitting  the  mortise-piece,  it  must 
be  carefully  pared  away  a  little  more.  The 
tenon  cannot  be  driven  quite  "  home,"  being 
stopped  by  the  stud.  Room  will  be  made 
for  this  by  cutting  the  groove,  which  is 
the  next  operation. 


LESSON  XXIII. 

The  Plow.  —  Fitting  a  Panel. 

THE    tool     used     for     this     purpose    is     a 
kind  of  plane  called   a   plow.     Its   mode 
of  action  will  be  understood  after  an  examina- 
tion   of    the     accompanying     Figure    and    of 
the  tool    itself. 

The  iron  d,  Fig.  80,  cuts  the  groove.  The 
" fence"  b  determines  the  distance  of  the 
groove  from  the  face  of  the  piece.  It  can 
be  set  at  any  distance  from  the  iron  by 
means  of  the  screws  c.  The  stop  a,  which 
can  be  raised  or  lowered  by  the  screw  e, 
regulates  the  depth  of  the  cut.  For  this 
exercise  it  must  be  set  at  ^",  and  the  fence 
must  be  set  so  that  the  groove  shall  be  \" 
from  the  face  of  the  frame.  Before  venturing 
to  use  the  plow  on  your  frame,  you  should 
try  it  on  a  waste-piece,  and  assure  yourself 
that  you  can  cut  a  smooth,  clean  groove  at 
the  proper  distance  from  the  face  of  the 

167 


168 


Manual    Training. 


frame  and  to  the   required   depth.     The   plow 
has    an    assortment    of    irons,    or    "bits/'     of 


different   sizes   for  cutting   grooves  of  different 

widths.     For  this  exercise  the  I"  iron  will  be 

EXERCISE  as.    used.     Remember   that    the  plow 

Grooving.      is  to  be   placed   against  the  front 

surface   of    each   piece.     If    this   precaution    is 

neglected,  the  grooves  in  the  several  pieces  will 

probably    not   match    at   the    corners,  and   the 

panel    cannot    be   got   in.      The   grooves   must 

not    be    planed    beyond    the    depth    indicated, 


Wood  -  Working.  169 


for  if  cut  too  deep  they  will  weaken  the 
pieces  too  much.  The  grooves  being  cut,  the 
studs  which  have  been  left  to  fill  them 
will  go  into  their  places,  and  all  the  joints 
should  fit  quite  close.  If  too  much  wood 
has  been  left  anywhere  it  may  be  carefully 
pared  away;  if  too  much  has  been  cut  off' 
there  is  no  remedy. 

To  prepare  the  panel,  first  plane  it  to 
the  proper  thickness,  and  finish  it  with  the 
smoothing-plane.  Then  plane  two  edges 
straight  and  perpendicular  to  each  other, 
being  careful,  in  planing  the  end,  to  avoid 
splintering,  as  directed  in  Lesson  XIX.,  page 
138.  Then  cut  the  piece  to  the  proper 
length  and  breadth,  remembering  that  these 
are  not  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  in- 
side of  the  panel,  but  \"  more,  on  account 
of  the  depth  of  the  groove. 

The  panel  is  next  to  be  fitted  to  the 
groove  by  chamfering.  Mark  the  width  of 
the  chamfer  (1")  all  round  the  face  with  a 
lead -pencil,  or  very  lightly  Avith  the  gauge, 
and  the  depth  (\f'}  on  the  edge  in  the  same 
way.  Lay  the  piece  on  the  bench,  its  edge 


170 


Manual    Training. 


being  just  even  with  the  edge  of  the  bench, 
fasten  it  down  with  a  hand-screw,  and  plane 
the  chamfer  carefully  to  the  mark  all  round, 
EXERCISE  39.  again  being  careful  to  avoid 
Fitting  a  panel,  splintering.  If  this  is  properly 
done,  the  panel  will  have  a  thickness  of  f "  at 
a  distance  of  half  an  inch  from  the  edge,  and 
will  just  fit  in 
the  groove  as 
shown  in  Fig.  81. 
In  this  Figure, 
the  shading, 
which  has  been 
introduced  once 

before  in  Fig.  63,  c,  indicates  a  cross-section, 
fine  ruled  lines  being  generally  used  for 
metal,  and  somewhat  coarser  free-hand  lines 
for  wood.  Do  not  drive  the  panel  in  if  it 
fits  tight,  but  ease  it  carefully  till  it  enters 
freely  without  looseness.  The  flat  side  is  to 
be  turned  towards  the  front  of  the  frame. 

The  frame  of  the  door  has  been  made 
thicker  than  it  ought  to  be,  in  order  to  lessen 
the  risk  of  splitting  the  stiles  while  making 
the  mortises.  It  may  now  be  taken  apart  and 


Wood  -  Working.  171 


finished  to  a  proper  thickness.  This  is  not 
the  course  that  a  skilled  workman  would  take, 
nor  that  which  you  will  follow  hereafter  in 
such  cases.  Setting  your  gauge  at  i",  make  a 
mark  on  hoth  edges  of  each  piece  at  that 
distance  from  the  front.  Then,  setting  it  at 
lyV'>  make  a  second  mark  at  this  distance 
from  the  front.  Plane  the  faces  exactly  to 
these  marks.  The  thickness  of  the  frame  will 
then  be  reduced  to  1TV'>  and  the  groove  will 
be  |" ',  from  the  front,  and  T5g-"  from  the  back, 
the  latter  distance  being  left  larger  because 
the  chamfer  brings  the  back  surface  of  the 
panel  nearer  to  the  surface  of  the  frame  than 
the  front,  as  shown  in  Fig.  81. 


XXIV. 

Chamfering.  —  Sand-Paper.  —  Shellac. 

THE  door  may  now  be  glued  together  and 
afterwards  finished  up  with  the  smooth- 
ing-plane,  or  the  front  inner  edges  of  the 
frame  may  be  chamfered  first.  Fig.  82  shows 
how  the  chamfer  is  to  be  laid  out.  The  line 
A  B  is  drawn  with  a  sharp  pencil  on  the 
front  of  each  piece,  at  a  distance  of  ry'  from 
the  inner  edge,  and  the  line  C  D  on  this 
inner  edge  at  the  same  distance  from  the  front. 
The  pencil  is  used  in  preference  to  the  gauge, 
because,  unless  the  latter  is  used  very  lightly 
and  skillfully,  its  mark  is  apt  to  show  on  the 
finished  work. 

The  chamfer  may  be  terminated  at  each 
end  by  a  simple  inclined  cut,  as  at  A  and  (7, 
Fig.  82,  or  by  an  ogee,  as  at  B  and  D.  For 
the  former,  mark  the  point  a  f"  from  0  the 
inner  corner  of  the  frame,  A  and  C  one  inch 
from  0,  and  corresponding  points  at  the 

172 


CF  THE  \ 

UNIVERSITY) 


-  Working. 


173 


other  end  of  the  piece.     For  the  latter,  mark 
a    as    before,  and    B   and    Z>    1"    from    0. 


To   cut   the    chamfer.     First   with   the   bev- 
eled   end.     Hold   the   piece  in   your   vice ;   set 
the    chisel  near   a,   the   flat   side    EXERCISE  40. 
towards  0,  and  make  an  inclined   chamfering  a 
cut    extending    nearly   down    to        frame, 
the    ruled    line,    and    throwing    up    a    chip. 
Turning  the  chisel  round,  set  it  about  |"  be- 


174  Manual    Training. 

yond  A  or  C,  arid  cut  out  the  chip,  leaving 
a  notch.  Out  again,  with  the  chisel  close  to 
a,  making  as  clean  a  cut  as  you  can,  and 
being  very  careful  not  to  let  the  chisel  go 
even  a  little  beyond  the  ruled  line  A  B, 
because,  if  it  does  so,  a  mark  will  be  left 
on  the  chamfered  surface  which  you  cannot 
remove.  Having  made  such  a  notch  at 
each  end  of  the  chamfer,  you  may  score  the 
edge  not  quite  down  to  the  two  marks,  and 
pare  it  down,  making  a  plane  surface  inclined 
to  the  face.  You  will  find  that  it  is  not  easy 
to  make  this  surface  perfectly  true.  The 
points  to  be  attended  to  in  order  to  secure 
good  results  are : 

1.  To    keep    the  chisel  very    sharp,  and    in 
particular,  not  to  let  it  get  in  the  least  degree 
round  on  the  back. 

2.  To  give    it    constantly  the  sliding  move- 
ment   which    prevents    it    from    following    the 
grain  of  the  wood. 

3.  As  you  get  nearly  down  to  the  required 
depth    of    the  chamfer,  to    keep    the    back    of 
the    chisel    lying    quite   flat  on  the  surface,  so 
that    it    shall    act   as    a    plane,  removing    all 
irregularities. 


Wood  -  Working.  1 75 


4.  To  take  care,  while  cutting  either  the 
inclined  end  of  the  chamfer,  or  the  long 
plane  surface,  to  make  no  mark  on  the  other 
surface,  but  to  make  the  two  surfaces  meet 
in  a  perfectly  sharp  and  smooth  line,  perpen- 
dicular to  the  edge. 

You  see  that  it  is  impossible  from  the 
nature  of  the  chamfer,  to  finish  it  up  with 
the  plane,  and  that  it  requires,  therefore,  ex- 
cellent work  with  the  chisel.  If  the  cham- 
fer is  several  feet  long,  the  smoothing-plane 
can  be  used  in  the  middle  of  it,  but  even 
then  the  ends  have  to  be  finished  with  the 
chisel.  Fine  sand-paper  is  sometimes  used 
in  finishing  up  such  a  surface,  a  EXERCISE  41. 
piece  of  it  being  held  on  a  block  sand-papering, 
of  wood  and  rubbed  to  and  fro,  taking  great 
care  not  to  allow  any  rocking  motion  of  the 
block,  as  this  would  give  a  rounded  surface 
instead  of  a  plane  one,  nor  to  leave  the  paper 
loose  on  the  block,  in  which  case  it  will 
wrap  round  the  corner  of  the  work  and  pro- 
duce the  same  result.  Even  with  the  utmost 
care  that  can  be  taken,  the  sand-paper  is 
almost  certain  to  take  off  the  sharp  corners 


176  Manual    Training. 

that  characterize  good  work,  and  should  not 
be  used,  unless,  as  in  this  case,  a  very  fine 
shaving  can  afterwards  be  taken  off  with 
the  smoothirig-plane  from  the  adjacent  face, 
to  restore  the  sharpness  of  the  edge. 

The  ogee  end  of  the  chamfer  is  more  difficult 
than  the  plane  end.  The  curved  surface  to 
be  formed  is  concave  at  a,  Fig.  83,  and  convex 

at  b.  The  part 
a  should  be  cut 
first.  The  chisel 
is  set  with  the 
handle  towards 
the  left  in  the 
Figure,  and  the 
bevel  side  towards  the  wood,  a  little  to  the  left 
of  a,  and  a  small  cut  made.  Then  it  is 
turned  with  the  handle  towards  the  right, 
the  bevel  still  towards  the  wood,  and  the 
chip  cut,  out.  These  operations  are  repeated, 
gradually  widening  the  cut,  till  the  hollow 
has  the  proper  size.  As  the  cut  is  most 
inclined  at  the  beginning  of  the  hollow  and 
level  at  the  bottom,  the  handle  of  the  chisel 
must  be  depressed  as  you  approach  the  bot- 


Wood -Working.  177 


torn,  and  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the 
tool  from  making  a  mark  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  hollow.  The  convex  surface  6 
is  cut  with  the  back  of  the  chisel  towards 
the  wood,  as  in  cutting  the  plane  surface, 
and  is  comparatively  easy  to  form.  The 
entire  curved  surface,  like  the  plane  sur- 
face of  the  chamfer,  ought  to  be  formed  with 
the  chisel  alone.  If  you  fail  to  get  it 
smooth  with  the  chisel,  you  may  use  a  piece 
of  very  fine  sand-paper  (No.  0)  in  the  fol- 
lowing way:  Prepare  a  stick,  J"  x  J"  -  5". 
Cut  one  of  the  flat  faces  with  your  knife 
or  your  chisel,  to  such  a  curvature  that 
it  will  nearly  fit  the  hollow,  touching  at 
the  bottom,  but  not  at  the  sides.  Glue 
a  piece  of  sand-paper  on  this,  and  use  it  as 
a  file  to  smooth  the  hollow.  Even  with 
this  there  is  danger  of  your  rounding  the 
surface,  and  particularly  of  spoiling  the  sharp 
point  of  junction  at  c,  between  the  ogee 
and  the  straight  edge  of  your  piece.  You 
will  do  best,  therefore,  to  endeavor  to  avoid 
the  use  of  sand-paper  in  such  cases  as  this,  re- 
garding it  as  the  resource  of  an  unskillful 


178  Manual    Training. 

workman.  This,  however,  is  not  to  be  un- 
derstood as  condemning  the  proper  use  of 
it  on  broad  surfaces  to  give  a  smooth  finish, 
when  there  are  no  corners  that  are  likely 
to  be  injured  by  it. 

The  chamfered  edges  being  now  finished, 
you  may  pass  the  smoothing-plane,  set  very 
fine,  once  over  the  inner  edge  of  the  pieces  of 
the  frame,  and  over  the  surfaces  of  the  panel, 
before  gluing  them  together.  The  other 
surfaces  can  be  finished  afterwards. 

The  panel  is  not  to  be  glued  into  its 
groove,  but  left  free,  so  that  it  can  shrink 
without  splitting.  It  will  even  be  best  to 
rub  some  soap  or  wax  on  the  corners,  to 
prevent  -its  being  accidentally  stuck  by  the 
glue  which  will  squeeze  out  of  the  joints. 

If  you  have  no  hand-screws  large  enough 
to  span  the  width  of  the  frame,  you  may 
proceed,  in  this  and  similar  cases,  as  follows : 
Provide  two  strips  of  board,  A  and  B,  Fig. 
84,  three  or  four  inches  wide,  and  as  long 
as  the  inside  of  your  frame.  Fasten  them 
down  on  your  bench  parallel  to  each  other 
with  hand-screws,  so  that  the  door  will  lie 


Wood  -  Working. 


179 


between    them,  Avith    about   an    inch    to   spare. 
Lay  two   pairs   of    wedges    in  the  open   space, 
as  at  c  and  d.     By  driving    the    inner  wedges 
outward   you  can  force  the  stiles    EXERCISE  42. 
up  close  against  the  shoulders  of   Qiuing^np  a 
the  tenons.     In  putting  the  frame    panel  frame, 
together,  insert  first  two  tenons  into  one   stile 


and  drive  them  home ;  then  put  in  the  panel, 
and  lastly  put  on  the  other  stile  and  drive  it 
up  tight.  Put  no  glue  on  the  inner  edge  of 
the  tenon,  as  whatever  is  put  on  here  will  be 


180  Manual    Training. 

driven  out  into  the  grooves  and  will  tend  to 
fasten  the  panel.  Test  the  frame  for  square- 
ness, and  correct  any  error,  before  allowing 
the  glue  to  set,  by  gentle  strokes  of  the  ham- 
mer on  the  proper  corners,  protecting  the  edge 
with  a  block  of  wood  when  you  strike  it. 

When  all  is  dry,  cut  off  the  projecting  ends 
with  the  back-saw,  being  careful  not  to  cut 
too  close,  or  you  will  deface  the  outer  edge 
of  the  frame.  Finish  up  with  the  smooth  ing- 
plane,  observing  the  precautions  indicated  in 
Lesson  XIX.,  page  138,  to  avoid  splintering. 

The  surfaces  of  the  door  may  be  finished 
with  shellac  varnish,  which  consists  of  white 
shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol.  This  will  pro- 
tect it  in  part  from  the  effects  of  moisture, 
EXERCISE  43.  and  will  allow  it  to  be  cleaned 

Finishing  with  from  time  to  time-  Sand-ptipor 
shellac.  all  broad  surfaces  and  wipe  them 
clear  of  dust  with  a  clean  rag.  Then,  in 
a  warm  room,  free  from  dust,  apply  with  a 
flat  brush,  one  coat  of  varnish,  and  let  it 
dry.  Do  not  pass  the  brush  over  the  varnish 
oftener  than  is  necessary  to  spread  it  smooth. 
Passing  the  brush  over  it  when  it  is  begin- 


Wood  •  Working.  181 


ing  to  "set,"  or  dry,  breaks  up  the  smooth 
surface  that  it  would  form  if  left  to  itself. 
Do  not  put  on  too  much  at  a  time;  it  will 
flow  down  the  sides  and  form  "runs,"  which 
it  is  hard  to  remove.  When  the  first  coat  is 
thoroughly  dry,  which  should  be  in  a  quarter 
of  an  hour,  it  may  be  rubbed  down  with 
fine  sand-paper,  on  a  block,  taking  great  care 
to  do  no  injury  to  the  corners,  and  a  second 
coat  applied. 

If  you  have  determined  in  advance  to 
finish  the  work  with  shellac,  it  will  be  best 
to  finish  the  panel  and  the  inner  edges  of 
the  frame  before  gluing.  In  this  case,  how- 
ever, you  must  be  careful  to  clean  off  with 
warm  water  any  glue  that  may  get  on  the. 
finished  surfaces,  before  it  hardens,  as,  after 
it  is  hard  it  will  take  off  the"  varnish  with 
it.  All  the  other  surfaces  should  be  finished 
after  gluing. 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


PAGE 

Accidents  with  tools,  prevention  of    ....  3 
Ax ;  See  Hatchet 

Awl 143 

Back-saw,  use  of  in  cross-cutting  and  ripping    .         .115 

Battened  door           .         .         .        .         .         .         .  147 

Bench-dog 79 

Bench-hook      .        .        ....        .        .  63 

Bevel 123 

Boring 105 

Box,  nailing  together 52 

Box,  dove-tailed 119 

Brace 105 

Brad-awl 143 

Broken  lines  in  drawings,  meaning  of         ...  2 

Cap  of  plane     ........  60 

Center-bit    .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .105 

Chamfering     ....          .        .         101,  169,  172 

Checks ;  See  Cracking 

Chisel,  form  of 85 

"       grinding 94 

"       paring  with 88 

183 


184  Manual    Training. 

PAGE 

Chisel,  manner  of  holding  '.        87,  88,  92,  95 

"       sliding  movement  of 90 

sharpening 92 

Cracking  of  timber 29,  31 

Cross-cutting  with  hatchet 6 

«         "          "    knife 2 

"    saw     .        .        .        .        .        .          23 

Door,  battened 147 

"      paneled 149 

"      prevention  of  effect  of  shrinkage       .        .        .     146 

Dove-tail,  end Ill 

Dove-tailed  box 119 

Dove-tailing,  points  to  be  attended  to  in         .        .         127 

Dowels 28 

Drawings,  scale  of;  working 38 

details         .        .        .  .        .         34, 41 

"          isometric  projection        .        .        .        .        153 

meaning  of  broken  lines     ....        2 

"          working  sketches    .        .  .        .          3@ 

"          sections       .        .        ...        .41,  150 

shading  to  indicate  sections    .        .        .        170 

End-wood,  planing 138 

Fibers  of  wood         .....        .        .          15 

Gauge,  use  of       .        . 74 

Glue,  cleaning  off    .        .        .        .        .        .         134,  135 

"      preparation  of 128 

"      to  prevent  from  sticking        .        .        .        .        137 

Gluing 128 

Gluing,  warming  the  work  for         ,        ,        ,        ,        133 


Index.  185 

PAGE 

Grain  of  wood,  working  against  the    ....       66 
Grinding  chisels  and  planes    .         .         ...          95 

Hammer,  striking  with 49 

Hand-screws,  adjustment  and  use  of        .         .         130,  132 
Hatchet  or  ax,  cross-cutting  with        ....        6 

"         "          hewing  with 13 

"         "          splitting  with       .        .         .         .         .        8 

Hewing  with  hatchet 13 

Hinges,  fitting  of         . 140 

points  to  be  attended  to  in          .         .         .         143 
Hook  and  screw-eye  for  box        .        .         .         .         .145 

Isometric  drawing   .......         153 

Knife,  cross- cutting  with     ......         1 

*'       splitting  with         ......  7 

"       whittling  or  paring  with 11 

Laying  out  dove-tails 123 

"     end  dove-tails 112 

"     mortise  and  tenon         .         .         .         .         105 

"     paneled  door    ...        .        .        .162 

"     work ;  avoiding  knots  and  cracks         .  48,  151 

Mallet 102 

Marking  with  square  .         .         .         .         .          24 

"  "    gauge 74 

Materials  required  .......  vii 

Metric  measures 104 

Mortise-cutting  with  center-bit         ....         106 
"  "        without  center-bit       .         .         .     116,  164 

"       and  tenon 103,  160 

Nailed  box  52 


186 


Manual    Training. 


PAGE 

Nails,  drawing 56 

"       form  of      . 50 

Nails,  four-penny,  etc 49 

"      right  and  wrong  driving  of        .         .         .         .51 

Ogee  end  of  chamfer 176 

Oil-stone 86,  92 

Paneled  door 146 

Paneled  door,  chamfering  the  frame  of       ...     172 

"    panel  of    ...        169 
cutting  mortises  and  tenons  for    .         .164 

finishing  up 178 

gluing 177 

grooving  for       .         .        .         .         .         168 

laying  out 162 

Paring  with  chisel  across  the  grain          .        .        .        101 
"         "         "        with  the  grain       ....      87 

"        "      knife 11 

Pine-wood 96 

Plane,  fore 70 

"      jack 58 

"  manner  of  holding  .  .  .  .  .  63 
"  mode  of  action  of  .  '  .  .  .  .  59,  61 
"  principal  points  in  using  ....  64 
"  smoothing  .......  69 

Planing  an  edge 76 

Planing  end-wood 138,  139 

"       to  thickness 76 

Plane-irons 59 

Plane-iron,  adjustment  of         .....  60 


Index.  187 


PAGE 

Plow 167 

Sand-paper      .   . 175,  177 

Saw,  back 78,  115 

Saw,  cross-cut 21 

"      dove-tail 79,  126 

Saw-kerf,  allowance  for 45 

Saw,  rip 83 

"    tenon 78 

Scale  of  drawings        .......  38 

Scoring  with  knife  or  hatchet          .        .        .        .  11 

Screw-driver 143 

Sharpening  tools 92 

Shellac  varnish 180 

Shrinkage  and  warping,  effect  of,  on  doors     .        .  146 

Shrinkage  of  wood 28 

Sliding  movements  of  cutting  tools         ...  4 

Splitting  with  hatchet 8 

"    knife         ...                .  7 

Square 24 

Standard  edge  or  surface 45,  72 

Straight-edge 55 

Testing-machine 18 

Timber ;  See  Wood 

Tools  required,  list  of vii 

Warping  of  wood 30 

White-wood 69 

Whittling ;  See  Paring 

Winding 55 

Winding,  removal  of 71 


188  Manual    Training. 

PAGE 

Winding-sticks         .  ....          55 

Wood,  fibers  of 15 

"      shrinking,  cracking  and  warping  of     .         .    29,  30 

"      strength  of 18 

Wood,  structure  of  .        .        .        .        .        .        .    15,  16 

Working  drawings       .......       38 

"       sketches  36 


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